tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-70625966300627830762023-11-16T01:02:19.868+07:00LINGUISTICSQarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.comBlogger38125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-7550864775662631072011-09-10T21:55:00.002+07:002011-09-10T21:55:53.008+07:00morphology<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:AllowPNG/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>AR-SA</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/> <w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/> <w:OverrideTableStyleHps/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div style="text-align: justify;">In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">linguistics</span></a>, <b>morphology</b> is the identification, analysis and description of the structure of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphemes" title="Morphemes"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">morphemes</span></a> and other units of meaning in a language such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word" title="Word"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">words</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affix" title="Affix"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">affixes</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parts_of_speech" title="Parts of speech"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">parts of speech</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intonation_%28linguistics%29" title="Intonation (linguistics)"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">intonation</span></a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_%28linguistics%29" title="Stress (linguistics)"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">stress</span></a>, or implied <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context_%28language_use%29" title="Context (language use)"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">context</span></a>. (words in a <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">lexicon</span></a></i> are the subject matter of <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicology" title="Lexicology"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">lexicology</span></a></i>). <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_typology" title="Morphological typology"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Morphological typology</span></a> represents a way of classifying languages according to the ways by which morphemes are used in a language —from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">analytic</span></a> that use only isolated morphemes, through the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">agglutinative</span></a> ("stuck-together") and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusional_language" title="Fusional language"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">fusional languages</span></a> that use <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bound_morpheme" title="Bound morpheme"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">bound morphemes</span></a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affix" title="Affix"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">affixes</span></a>), up to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysynthetic_language" title="Polysynthetic language"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">polysynthetic</span></a>, which compress lots of separate morphemes into single words.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">While words are generally accepted as being (with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">clitics</span></a>) the smallest units of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">syntax</span></a>, it is clear that in most languages, if not all, words can be related to other words by rules (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">grammars</span></a>). For example, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language" title="English language"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">English</span></a> speakers recognize that the words <i>dog</i> and <i>dogs</i> are closely related — differentiated only by the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plural" title="Plural"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">plurality</span></a> morpheme</i> "-s", which is only found <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bound_morpheme" title="Bound morpheme"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">bound</span></a> to nouns, and is never separate. Speakers of English (a fusional language) recognize these relations from their tacit knowledge of the rules of word formation in English. They infer intuitively that <i>dog</i> is to <i>dogs</i> as <i>cat</i> is to <i>cats</i>; similarly, <i>dog</i> is to <i>dog catcher</i> as <i>dish</i> is to <i>dishwasher</i>, in one sense. The rules understood by the speaker reflect specific patterns, or regularities, in the way words are formed from smaller units and how those smaller units interact in speech. In this way, morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies patterns of word formation within and across languages, and attempts to formulate rules that model the knowledge of the speakers of those languages.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">A language like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Classical Chinese</span></a> instead uses unbound ("free") morphemes, but depends on post-phrase affixes, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">word order</span></a> to convey meaning. However, this cannot be said of present-day Mandarin, in which most words are compounds (around 80%), and most roots are bound.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">In the Chinese languages, these are understood as grammars that represent the morphology of the language. Beyond the agglutinative languages, a polysynthetic language like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chukchi_language" title="Chukchi language"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Chukchi</span></a> will have words composed of many morphemes: The word "təmeyŋəlevtpəγtərkən" is composed of eight morphemes <i>t-ə-meyŋ-ə-levt-pəγt-ə-rkən</i>, that can be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloss" title="Gloss"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">glossed</span></a> 1.SG.SUBJ-great-head-hurt-PRES.1, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation" title="Translation"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">meaning</span></a> 'I have a fierce headache.' The morphology of such languages allow for each consonant and vowel to be understood as morphemes, just as the grammars of the language key the usage and understanding of each morpheme.</div><h2 style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2><div style="text-align: justify;">The history of morphological analysis dates back to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">ancient Indian</span></a> linguist <span class="unicode"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Pā</span><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">ṇ</span><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">ini</span></a></span>, who formulated the 3,959 rules of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Sanskrit</span></a> morphology in the text <span class="unicode"><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashtadhyayi" title="Ashtadhyayi"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">A</span><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">ṣṭ</span><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">ādhyāyī</span></a></i></span> by using a Constituency Grammar. The Greco-Roman grammatical tradition also engaged in morphological analysis. Studies in Arabic morphology, conducted by <span class="unicode">Marāḥ al-arwāḥ</span> and <span class="unicode">Aḥmad b. ‘alī Mas‘ūd</span>, date back to at least 1200 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_%28linguistics%29#cite_note-0"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">[1]</span></a></sup></div><div style="text-align: justify;">The term <i>morphology</i> was coined by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Schleicher" title="August Schleicher"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">August Schleicher</span></a> in 1859.<sup id="cite_ref-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_%28linguistics%29#cite_note-1"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">[2]</span></a></sup></div><h2 style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline">Fundamental concepts</span></h2><h3 style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="color: windowtext;">Lexemes and word forms</span></span><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></h3><div style="text-align: justify;">The distinction between these two senses of "word" is arguably the most important one in morphology. The first sense of "word", the one in which <i>dog</i> and <i>dogs</i> are "the same word", is called a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexeme" title="Lexeme"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">lexeme</span></a>. The second sense is called <i>word form</i>. We thus say that <i>dog</i> and <i>dogs</i> are different forms of the same lexeme. <i>Dog</i> and <i>dog catcher</i>, on the other hand, are different lexemes, as they refer to two different kinds of entities. The form of a word that is chosen conventionally to represent the canonical form of a word is called a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemma_%28linguistics%29" title="Lemma (linguistics)"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">lemma</span></a>, or citation form.</div><h4 style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="color: windowtext;">Prosodic word vs. morphological word</span></span><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></h4><table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="mso-cellspacing: 1.5pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;"><tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><br />
</td> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">This section <b>may require <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Cleanup" title="Wikipedia:Cleanup"><span style="color: windowtext;">cleanup</span></a> to meet Wikipedia's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style"><span style="color: windowtext;">quality standards</span></a></b>. (Consider using <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Template_messages/Cleanup" title="Wikipedia:Template messages/Cleanup"><span style="color: windowtext;">more specific cleanup instructions</span></a>.) Please help <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morphology_%28linguistics%29&action=edit"><span style="color: windowtext;">improve this section</span></a> if you can. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Morphology_%28linguistics%29" title="Talk:Morphology (linguistics)"><span style="color: windowtext;">talk page</span></a> may contain suggestions. <i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(February 2007)</span></i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div style="text-align: justify;">Here are examples from other languages of the failure of a single phonological word to coincide with a single morphological word form. In Latin, one way to express the concept of '<span style="text-transform: lowercase;"><span style="font-variant: small-caps;">NOUN-PHRASE</span></span><sub>1</sub> and <span style="text-transform: lowercase;"><span style="font-variant: small-caps;">NOUN-PHRASE</span></span><sub>2</sub>' (as in "apples and oranges") is to suffix '-que' to the second noun phrase: "apples oranges-and", as it were. An extreme level of this theoretical quandary posed by some phonological words is provided by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwak%27wala" title="Kwak'wala"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Kwak'wala</span></a> language.<sup id="cite_ref-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_%28linguistics%29#cite_note-2"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">[3]</span></a></sup> In Kwak'wala, as in a great many other languages, meaning relations between nouns, including possession and "semantic case", are formulated by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affix" title="Affix"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">affixes</span></a> instead of by independent "words". The three-word English phrase, "with his club", where 'with' identifies its dependent noun phrase as an instrument and 'his' denotes a possession relation, would consist of two words or even just one word in many languages. Unlike most languages, Kwak'wala semantic affixes phonologically attach not to the lexeme they pertain to semantically, but to the <i>preceding</i> lexeme. Consider the following example (in Kwakw'ala, sentences begin with what corresponds to an English verb):<sup id="cite_ref-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_%28linguistics%29#cite_note-3"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">[4]</span></a></sup></div><div style="text-align: justify;">kwixʔid-i-da bəgwanəma<sub>i</sub>-χ-a q'asa-s-is<sub>i</sub> t'alwagwayu</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Morpheme</span></a> by morpheme translation:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">kwixʔid-i-da = clubbed-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;"><span style="text-transform: lowercase;">PIVOT-DETERMINER</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">bəgwanəma-χ-a = man-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;"><span style="text-transform: lowercase;">ACCUSATIVE-DETERMINER</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">q'asa-s-is = otter-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;"><span style="text-transform: lowercase;">INSTRUMENTAL-3SG-POSSESSIVE</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">t'alwagwayu = club.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">"the man clubbed the otter with his club"</div><div style="text-align: justify;">(Notation notes:</div><ol start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">accusative case marks an entity that something is done to.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">determiners are words such as "the", "this", "that".</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">the concept of "pivot" is a theoretical construct that is not relevant to this discussion.)</li>
</ol><div style="text-align: justify;">That is, to the speaker of Kwak'wala, the sentence does not contain the "words" 'him-the-otter' or 'with-his-club' Instead, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_marker" title="Descriptive marker"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">markers</span></a> -<i>i-da</i> (<span style="text-transform: lowercase;"><span style="font-variant: small-caps;">PIVOT</span></span>-'the'), referring to <i>man</i>, attaches not to <i>bəgwanəma</i> ('man'), but instead to the "verb"; the markers -<i>χ-a</i> (<span style="text-transform: lowercase;"><span style="font-variant: small-caps;">ACCUSATIVE</span></span>-'the'), referring to <i>otter</i>, attach to <i>bəgwanəma</i> instead of to <i>q'asa</i> ('otter'), etc. To summarize differently: a speaker of Kwak'wala does <i>not</i> perceive the sentence to consist of these phonological words:</div><pre style="text-align: justify;">kwixʔid<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>i-da-bəgwanəma<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>χ-a-q'asa<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>s-is<sub>i</sub>-t'alwagwayu</pre><pre style="text-align: justify;">"clubbed<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>PIVOT-the-man<sub>i</sub><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>hit-the-otter<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>with-his<sub>i</sub>-club</pre><div style="text-align: justify;">A central publication on this topic is the recent volume edited by Dixon and Aikhenvald (2007), examining the mismatch between prosodic-phonological and grammatical definitions of "word" in various Amazonian, Australian Aboriginal, Caucasian, Eskimo, Indo-European, Native North American, West African, and sign languages. Apparently, a wide variety of languages make use of the hybrid linguistic unit clitic, possessing the grammatical features of independent words but the prosodic-phonological lack of freedom of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bound_morpheme" title="Bound morpheme"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">bound morphemes</span></a>. The intermediate status of clitics poses a considerable challenge to linguistic theory.</div><h3 style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="color: windowtext;">Inflection vs. word formation</span></span><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></h3><div style="text-align: justify;">Given the notion of a lexeme, it is possible to distinguish two kinds of morphological rules. Some morphological rules relate to different forms of the same lexeme; while other rules relate to different lexemes. Rules of the first kind are called <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">inflectional rules</span></a></i>, while those of the second kind are called <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_formation" title="Word formation"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">word formation</span></a></i>. The English plural, as illustrated by <i>dog</i> and <i>dogs</i>, is an inflectional rule; compound phrases and words like <i>dog catcher</i> or <i>dishwasher</i> provide an example of a word formation rule. Informally, word formation rules form "new words" (that is, new lexemes), while inflection rules yield variant forms of the "same" word (lexeme).</div><div style="text-align: justify;">There is a further distinction between two kinds of word formation: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivation_%28linguistics%29" title="Derivation (linguistics)"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">derivation</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_%28linguistics%29" title="Compound (linguistics)"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">compounding</span></a>. Compounding is a process of word formation that involves combining complete word forms into a single <i>compound</i> form; <i>dog catcher</i> is therefore a compound, because both <i>dog</i> and <i>catcher</i> are complete word forms in their own right before the compounding process has been applied, and are subsequently treated as one form. Derivation involves <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affix" title="Affix"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">affixing</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bound_morpheme" title="Bound morpheme"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">bound</span></a> (non-independent) forms to existing lexemes, whereby the addition of the affix <i>derives</i> a new lexeme. One example of derivation is clear in this case: the word <i>independent</i> is derived from the word <i>dependent</i> by prefixing it with the derivational prefix <i>in-</i>, while <i>dependent</i> itself is derived from the verb <i>depend</i>.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">The distinction between inflection and word formation is not at all clear cut. There are many examples where linguists fail to agree whether a given rule is inflection or word formation. The next section will attempt to clarify this distinction.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Word formation is a process, as we have said, where you combine two complete words, whereas with inflection you can combine a suffix with some verb to change its form to subject of the sentence. For example: in the present indefinite, we use ‘go’ with subject I/we/you/they and plural nouns, whereas for third person singular pronouns (he/she/it) and singular nouns we use ‘goes’. So this ‘-es’ is an inflectional marker and is used to match with its subject. A further difference is that in word formation, the resultant word may differ from its source word’s grammatical category whereas in the process of inflection the word never changes its grammatical category.</div><h3 style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="color: windowtext;">Paradigms and morphosyntax</span></span><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></h3><table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="mso-cellspacing: 1.5pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;"><tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;"> <td style="background: #CCCCFF; padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology"><span style="color: windowtext;">Linguistic typology</span></a></span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_typology" title="Morphological typology"><span style="color: windowtext;">Morphological</span></a></span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 9.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolating_language" title="Isolating language"><span style="color: windowtext;">Isolating</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 9.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_language" title="Synthetic language"><span style="color: windowtext;">Synthetic</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 18.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysynthetic_language" title="Polysynthetic language"><span style="color: windowtext;">Polysynthetic</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 5;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 18.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusional_language" title="Fusional language"><span style="color: windowtext;">Fusional</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 6;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 18.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language"><span style="color: windowtext;">Agglutinative</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 7;"> <td style="border-bottom: solid #CCCCFF 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #CCCCFF .75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><br />
</td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 8;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_%28linguistics%29#Paradigms_and_morphosyntax" title="Morphology (linguistics)"><span style="color: windowtext;">Morphosyntactic</span></a></span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 9;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 9.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphosyntactic_alignment" title="Morphosyntactic alignment"><span style="color: windowtext;">Alignment</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 10;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 18.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominative%E2%80%93accusative_language" title="Nominative–accusative language"><span style="color: windowtext;">Accusative</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 11;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 18.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergative%E2%80%93absolutive_language" title="Ergative–absolutive language"><span style="color: windowtext;">Ergative</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 12;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 18.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split_ergativity" title="Split ergativity"><span style="color: windowtext;">Split ergative</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 13;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 18.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austronesian_alignment" title="Austronesian alignment"><span style="color: windowtext;">Philippine</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 14;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 18.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active%E2%80%93stative_language" title="Active–stative language"><span style="color: windowtext;">Active–stative</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 15;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 18.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripartite_language" title="Tripartite language"><span style="color: windowtext;">Tripartite</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 16;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 18.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominative%E2%80%93absolutive_language" title="Nominative–absolutive language"><span style="color: windowtext;">Marked nominative</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 17;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 9.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_language" title="Direct–inverse language"><span style="color: windowtext;">Inverse marking</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 18;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 9.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_pivot" title="Syntactic pivot"><span style="color: windowtext;">Syntactic pivot</span></a></span></i><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 19;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 9.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theta_role" title="Theta role"><span style="color: windowtext;">Theta role</span></a></span></i><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 20;"> <td style="border-bottom: solid #CCCCFF 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #CCCCFF .75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><br />
</td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 21;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order"><span style="color: windowtext;">Word Order</span></a></span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 22;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 9.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VO_language" title="VO language"><span style="color: windowtext;">VO languages</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 23;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 18.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" title="Subject–verb–object"><span style="color: windowtext;">Subject–verb–object</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 24;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 18.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object" title="Verb–subject–object"><span style="color: windowtext;">Verb–subject–object</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 25;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 18.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93subject" title="Verb–object–subject"><span style="color: windowtext;">Verb–object–subject</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 26;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 9.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OV_language" title="OV language"><span style="color: windowtext;">OV languages</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 27;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 18.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" title="Subject–object–verb"><span style="color: windowtext;">Subject–object–verb</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 28;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 18.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93verb" title="Object–subject–verb"><span style="color: windowtext;">Object–subject–verb</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 29;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 18.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93subject" title="Object–verb–subject"><span style="color: windowtext;">Object–verb–subject</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 30;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 9.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%E2%80%93manner%E2%80%93place" title="Time–manner–place"><span style="color: windowtext;">Time–manner–place</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 31;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt 9.0pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Place%E2%80%93manner%E2%80%93time" title="Place–manner–time"><span style="color: windowtext;">Place–manner–time</span></a></span></div></td> </tr>
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<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 33; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"> <td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="noprint"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">This box: <span style="word-spacing: -.12em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Linguistic_typology_topics" title="Template:Linguistic typology topics"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span title="View this template">vie</span><span style="color: windowtext;">w</span></span></a> <b>·</b> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Linguistic_typology_topics" title="Template talk:Linguistic typology topics"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span title="Discuss this template">tal</span><span style="color: windowtext;">k</span></span></a> <b>·</b> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Linguistic_typology_topics&action=edit"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span title="Edit this template">edi</span><span style="color: windowtext;">t</span></span></a></span></span></span><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div style="text-align: justify;">A linguistic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">paradigm</span></a> is the complete set of related word forms associated with a given lexeme. The familiar examples of paradigms are the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">conjugations</span></a> of verbs, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declension" title="Declension"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">declensions</span></a> of nouns. Accordingly, the word forms of a lexeme may be arranged conveniently into tables, by classifying them according to shared inflectional categories such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">tense</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">aspect</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">mood</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">number</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">gender</span></a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">case</span></a>. For example, the personal pronouns in English can be organized into tables, using the categories of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">person</span></a> (first, second, third), number (singular vs. plural), gender (masculine, feminine, neuter), and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">case</span></a> (subjective, objective, and possessive). See <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_personal_pronouns" title="English personal pronouns"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">English personal pronouns</span></a> for the details.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">The inflectional categories used to group word forms into paradigms cannot be chosen arbitrarily; they must be categories that are relevant to stating the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">syntactic rules</span></a> of the language. For example, person and number are categories that can be used to define paradigms in English, because English has <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement_%28linguistics%29" title="Agreement (linguistics)"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">grammatical agreement</span></a> rules that require the verb in a sentence to appear in an inflectional form that matches the person and number of the subject. In other words, the syntactic rules of English care about the difference between <i>dog</i> and <i>dogs</i>, because the choice between these two forms determines which form of the verb is to be used. In contrast, however, no syntactic rule of English cares about the difference between <i>dog</i> and <i>dog catcher</i>, or <i>dependent</i> and <i>independent</i>. The first two are just nouns, and the second two just adjectives, and they generally behave like any other noun or adjective behaves.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">An important difference between inflection and word formation is that inflected word forms of lexemes are organized into paradigms, which are defined by the requirements of syntactic rules, whereas the rules of word formation are not restricted by any corresponding requirements of syntax. Inflection is therefore said to be relevant to syntax, and word formation is not. The part of morphology that covers the relationship between <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">syntax</span></a> and morphology is called morphosyntax, and it concerns itself with inflection and paradigms, but not with word formation or compounding.</div><h3 style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="color: windowtext;">Allomorphy</span></span><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></h3><div style="text-align: justify;">In the exposition above, morphological rules are described as analogies between word forms: <i>dog</i> is to <i>dogs</i> as <i>cat</i> is to <i>cats</i>, and as <i>dish</i> is to <i>dishes</i>. In this case, the analogy applies both to the form of the words and to their meaning: in each pair, the first word means "one of X", while the second "two or more of X", and the difference is always the plural form <i>-s</i> affixed to the second word, signaling the key distinction between singular and plural entities.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">One of the largest sources of complexity in morphology is that this one-to-one correspondence between meaning and form scarcely applies to every case in the language. In English, we have word form pairs like <i>ox/oxen</i>, <i>goose/geese</i>, and <i>sheep/sheep</i>, where the difference between the singular and the plural is signaled in a way that departs from the regular pattern, or is not signaled at all. Even cases considered "regular", with the final <i>-s</i>, are not so simple; the <i>-s</i> in <i>dogs</i> is not pronounced the same way as the <i>-s</i> in <i>cats</i>, and in a plural like <i>dishes</i>, an "extra" vowel appears before the <i>-s</i>. These cases, where the same distinction is effected by alternative forms of a "word", are called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allomorph" title="Allomorph"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">allomorphy</span></a>.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Phonological rules constrain which sounds can appear next to each other in a language, and morphological rules, when applied blindly, would often violate phonological rules, by resulting in sound sequences that are prohibited in the language in question. For example, to form the plural of <i>dish</i> by simply appending an <i>-s</i> to the end of the word would result in the form <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><span class="ipa">*[dɪʃs]</span></span>, which is not permitted by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonotactics" title="Phonotactics"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">phonotactics</span></a> of English. In order to "rescue" the word, a vowel sound is inserted between the root and the plural marker, and <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><span class="ipa">[dɪʃɪz]</span></span> results. Similar rules apply to the pronunciation of the <i>-s</i> in <i>dogs</i> and <i>cats</i>: it depends on the quality (voiced vs. unvoiced) of the final preceding <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">phoneme</span></a>.</div><h3 style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="color: windowtext;">Lexical morphology</span></span><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></h3><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_morphology" title="Lexical morphology"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Lexical morphology</span></a> is the branch of morphology that deals with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">lexicon</span></a>, which, morphologically conceived, is the collection of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexeme" title="Lexeme"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">lexemes</span></a> in a language. As such, it concerns itself primarily with word formation: derivation and compounding.</div><h2 style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline">Models</span></h2><div style="text-align: justify;">There are three principal approaches to morphology, which each try to capture the distinctions above in different ways. These are,</div><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">Morpheme-based morphology, which makes use of an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Item-and-Arrangment_%28Morphology%29&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Item-and-Arrangment (Morphology) (page does not exist)"><span style="color: windowtext;">Item-and-Arrangement</span></a> approach.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">Lexeme-based morphology, which normally makes use of an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Item-and-Process_%28Morphology%29&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Item-and-Process (Morphology) (page does not exist)"><span style="color: windowtext;">Item-and-Process</span></a> approach.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">Word-based morphology, which normally makes use of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word-and-paradigm_morphology" title="Word-and-paradigm morphology"><span style="color: windowtext;">Word-and-Paradigm</span></a> approach.</li>
</ul><div style="text-align: justify;">Note that while the associations indicated between the concepts in each item in that list is very strong, it is not absolute.</div><h3 style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="color: windowtext;">Morpheme-based morphology</span></span><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></h3><div style="text-align: justify;">In morpheme-based morphology, word forms are analyzed as arrangements of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">morphemes</span></a>. A morpheme is defined as the minimal meaningful unit of a language. In a word like <i>independently</i>, we say that the morphemes are <i>in-</i>, <i>depend</i>, <i>-ent</i>, and <i>ly</i>; <i>depend</i> is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_%28linguistics%29" title="Root (linguistics)"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">root</span></a> and the other morphemes are, in this case, derivational affixes.<sup id="cite_ref-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_%28linguistics%29#cite_note-4"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">[5]</span></a></sup> In a word like <i>dogs</i>, we say that <i>dog</i> is the root, and that <i>-s</i> is an inflectional morpheme. In its simplest (and most naïve) form, this way of analyzing word forms treats words as if they were made of morphemes put after each other like beads on a string, is called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Item-and-Arrangment_%28Morphology%29&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Item-and-Arrangment (Morphology) (page does not exist)"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Item-and-Arrangement</span></a>. More modern and sophisticated approaches seek to maintain the idea of the morpheme while accommodating non-concatenative, analogical, and other processes that have proven problematic for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Item-and-Arrangment_%28Morphology%29&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Item-and-Arrangment (Morphology) (page does not exist)"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Item-and-Arrangement</span></a> theories and similar approaches.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Morpheme-based morphology presumes three basic axioms (cf. Beard 1995 for an overview and references):</div><ol start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">Baudoin’s SINGLE MORPHEME HYPOTHESIS: Roots and affixes have the same status in the theory, they are MORPHEMES.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">Bloomfield’s SIGN BASE MORPHEME HYPOTHESIS: As morphemes, they are dualistic signs, since they have both (phonological) form and meaning.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">Bloomfield’s LEXICAL MORPHEME HYPOTHESIS: The morphemes, affixes and roots alike, are stored in the lexicon.</li>
</ol><div style="text-align: justify;">Morpheme-based morphology comes in two flavours, one Bloomfieldian and one Hockettian. (cf. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Bloomfield</span></a> 1933 and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_F._Hockett" title="Charles F. Hockett"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Charles F. Hockett</span></a> 1947). For Bloomfield, the <i>morpheme</i> was the minimal form with meaning, but it was not meaning itself. For Hockett, morphemes are <i>meaning elements</i>, not <i>form elements</i>. For him, there is a <i>morpheme plural</i>, with the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allomorph" title="Allomorph"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">allomorphs</span></a></i> <i>-s, -en, -ren</i> etc. Within much morpheme-based morphological theory, these two views are mixed in unsystematic ways, so that a writer may talk about "the morpheme <i>plural</i>" and "the morpheme <i>-s</i>" in the same sentence, although these are different things.</div><h3 style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="color: windowtext;">Lexeme-based morphology</span></span><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></h3><div style="text-align: justify;">Lexeme-based morphology is (usually) an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Item-and-Process_%28Morphology%29&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Item-and-Process (Morphology) (page does not exist)"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Item-and-Process</span></a> approach. Instead of analyzing a word form as a set of morphemes arranged in sequence, a word form is said to be the result of applying rules that <i>alter</i> a word form or stem in order to produce a new one. An inflectional rule takes a stem, changes it as is required by the rule, and outputs a word form; a derivational rule takes a stem, changes it as per its own requirements, and outputs a derived stem; a compounding rule takes word forms, and similarly outputs a compound stem.</div><h3 style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="color: windowtext;">Word-based morphology</span></span><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></h3><div style="text-align: justify;">Word-based morphology is (usually) a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word-and-paradigm_morphology" title="Word-and-paradigm morphology"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Word-and-paradigm</span></a> approach. This theory takes paradigms as a central notion. Instead of stating rules to combine morphemes into word forms, or to generate word forms from stems, word-based morphology states generalizations that hold between the forms of inflectional paradigms. The major point behind this approach is that many such generalizations are hard to state with either of the other approaches. The examples are usually drawn from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusional_language" title="Fusional language"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">fusional languages</span></a>, where a given "piece" of a word, which a morpheme-based theory would call an inflectional morpheme, corresponds to a combination of grammatical categories, for example, "third person plural." Morpheme-based theories usually have no problems with this situation, since one just says that a given morpheme has two categories. Item-and-Process theories, on the other hand, often break down in cases like these, because they all too often assume that there will be two separate rules here, one for third person, and the other for plural, but the distinction between them turns out to be artificial. Word-and-Paradigm approaches treat these as whole words that are related to each other by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogy" title="Analogy"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">analogical</span></a> rules. Words can be categorized based on the pattern they fit into. This applies both to existing words and to new ones. Application of a pattern different from the one that has been used historically can give rise to a new word, such as <i>older</i> replacing <i>elder</i> (where <i>older</i> follows the normal pattern of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">adjectival</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superlative" title="Superlative"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">superlatives</span></a>) and <i>cows</i> replacing <i>kine</i> (where <i>cows</i> fits the regular pattern of plural formation).</div><h2 style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline">Morphological typology</span></h2><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_typology" title="Morphological typology"><span style="color: windowtext;">Morphological typology</span></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;">In the 19th century, philologists devised a now classic classification of languages according to their morphology. According to this typology, some languages are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolating_language" title="Isolating language"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">isolating</span></a>, and have little to no morphology; others are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agglutinating_language" title="Agglutinating language"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">agglutinative</span></a>, and their words tend to have lots of easily separable morphemes; while others yet are inflectional or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusional_language" title="Fusional language"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">fusional</span></a>, because their inflectional morphemes are "fused" together. This leads to one bound morpheme conveying multiple pieces of information. The classic example of an isolating language is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Chinese</span></a>; the classic example of an agglutinative language is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Turkish</span></a>; both <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language" title="Latin language"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Latin</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Greek</span></a> are classic examples of fusional languages.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Considering the variability of the world's languages, it becomes clear that this classification is not at all clear cut, and many languages do not neatly fit any one of these types, and some fit in more than one way. A continuum of complex morphology of language may be adapted when considering languages.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">The three models of morphology stem from attempts to analyze languages that more or less match different categories in this typology. The Item-and-Arrangement approach fits very naturally with agglutinative languages; while the Item-and-Process and Word-and-Paradigm approaches usually address fusional languages.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">The reader should also note that the classical typology mostly applies to inflectional morphology. There is very little fusion going on with word formation. Languages may be classified as synthetic or analytic in their word formation, depending on the preferred way of expressing notions that are not inflectional: either by using word formation (synthetic), or by using syntactic phrases (analytic).</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Take it from Wikipedia. </div>Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-40060058099339906392011-09-10T21:31:00.003+07:002011-09-10T21:32:44.304+07:00PRAGMATICS<br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Pragmatics</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> is a subfield of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">linguistics</span></a>
which studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning. Pragmatics
encompasses <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">speech act</span></a> theory, conversational <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicature" title="Implicature"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">implicature</span></a>,
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">talk in interaction</span></a> and other approaches
to language behavior in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">philosophy</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_language" title="Sociology of language"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">sociology</span></a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">linguistics</span></a>.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatics#cite_note-Mey-0"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[1]</span></a></sup>
It studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on the linguistic
knowledge (e.g. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">grammar</span></a>,
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">lexicon</span></a>
etc.) of the speaker and listener, but also on the context of the utterance,
knowledge about the status of those involved, the inferred <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intention" title="Intention"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">intent</span></a>
of the speaker, and so on.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatics#cite_note-1"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[2]</span></a></sup>
In this respect, pragmatics explains how language users are able to overcome
apparent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">ambiguity</span></a>,
since meaning relies on the manner, place, time etc. of an utterance.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatics#cite_note-Mey-0"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[1]</span></a></sup>
The ability to understand another speaker's intended meaning is called <i>pragmatic
competence</i>. So an utterance describing pragmatic function is described as
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metapragmatics" title="Metapragmatics"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">metapragmatic</span></a>.
Pragmatic awareness is regarded as one of the most challenging aspects of
language learning, and comes only through <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience" title="Experience"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">experience</span></a></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18pt;">Structural ambiguity</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The
sentence "You have a green light" is ambiguous. Without knowing the
context, the identity of the speaker, and their intent, it is not possible to
infer the meaning with confidence. For example:</span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">It could mean you have green
ambient lighting.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Or that you have a green
light to drive your car.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Or it could be indicating
that you can go ahead with the project.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Or that your body has a green
glow.</span></li>
</ul>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Similarly,
the sentence "Sherlock saw the man with binoculars" could mean that
Sherlock observed the man by using binoculars; or it could mean that Sherlock
observed a man who was holding binoculars.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatics#cite_note-2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[3]</span></a></sup>
The meaning of the sentence depends on an understanding of the context and
the speaker's intent. As defined in linguistics, a sentence is an abstract
entity — a string of words divorced from non-linguistic context — as opposed
to an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utterance" title="Utterance"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">utterance</span></a>,
which is a concrete example of a speech act in a specific context. The closer
conscious subjects stick to common words, idioms, phrasings, and topics, the
more easily others can surmise their meaning; the further they stray from
common expressions and topics, the wider the variations in interpretations.
This suggests that sentences do not have meaning intrinsically; there is not
a meaning associated with a sentence or word, they can only symbolically
represent an idea. <i>The cat sat on the mat</i> is a sentence of English; if
you say to your sister on Tuesday afternoon: "The cat sat on the
mat", this is an example of an utterance. Thus, there is no such thing
as a sentence, term, expression or word symbolically representing a single
true meaning; it is underspecified (which cat sat on which mat?) and
potentially ambiguous. The meaning of an utterance, on the other hand, is
inferred based on linguistic knowledge and knowledge of the non-linguistic
context of the utterance (which may or may not be sufficient to resolve
ambiguity). In mathematics with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berry%27s_paradox" title="Berry's paradox"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Berry's
paradox</span></a> there arose a systematic ambiguity with the word
"definable". The ambiguity with words shows that the descriptive
power of any human language is limited.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Pragmatics
was a reaction to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">structuralist</span></a> linguistics as outlined by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Ferdinand de Saussure</span></a>. In many cases, it
expanded upon his idea that language has an analyzable structure, composed of
parts that can be defined in relation to others. Pragmatics first engaged
only in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Course_in_General_Linguistics#The_Synchronic_and_Diachronic_Axes" title="Course in General Linguistics"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">synchronic</span></a> study, as
opposed to examining the historical development of language. However, it
rejected the notion that all meaning comes from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_%28semiotics%29" title="Sign (semiotics)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">signs</span></a> existing purely in the abstract space
of <i>langue</i>. Meanwhile, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_pragmatics" title="Historical pragmatics"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">historical pragmatics</span></a> has also come into
being.</span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The study of the speaker's
meaning, not focusing on the phonetic or grammatical form of an
utterance, but instead on what the speaker's intentions and beliefs are.</span></li>
</ul>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The study of the meaning in
context, and the influence that a given context can have on the message.
It requires knowledge of the speaker's identities, and the place and
time of the utterance.</span></li>
</ul>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The study of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicature" title="Implicature"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">implicatures</span></a>,
i.e. the things that are communicated even though they are not
explicitly expressed.</span></li>
</ul>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The study of relative
distance, both social and physical, between speakers in order to
understand what determines the choice of what is said and what is not
said.</span></li>
</ul>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The study of what is not
meant, as opposed to the intended meaning, i.e. that which is unsaid and
unintended, or unintentional.</span></li>
</ul>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo7; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Information
Structure</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">, the study of how utterances
are marked in order to efficiently manage the common ground of referred
entities between speaker and hearer</span></li>
</ul>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo8; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_Pragmatics" title="Formal Pragmatics"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Formal Pragmatics</span></a>, the study of
those aspects of meaning and use, for which context of use is an
important factor, by using the methods and goals of formal semantics</span></li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18pt;">Referential
uses of language</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
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When we speak of the referential uses of
language we are talking about how we use <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_%28semiotics%29" title="Sign (semiotics)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">signs</span></a> to refer to certain items. Below is an
explanation of, first, what a sign is, second, how meanings are accomplished
through its usage.<br />
<br />
A sign is the link or relationship between a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_%28semiotics%29" title="Sign (semiotics)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">signified and the signifier</span></a> as defined by
Saussure and Huguenin. The signified is some entity or concept in the world.
The signifier represents the signified. An example would be:<br />
<i>Signified: the concept cat<br />
Signifier: the word "cat"</i><br />
The relationship between the two gives the sign meaning. This relationship
can be further explained by considering what we mean by "meaning."
In pragmatics, there are two different types of meaning to consider: <b>semantico-referential
meaning</b> and <b>indexical meaning.</b> Semantico-referential meaning
refers to the aspect of meaning, which describes events in the world that are
independent of the circumstance they are uttered in. An example would be
propositions such as:<br />
<br />
<i>"Santa Claus eats cookies."</i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In this case, the proposition is describing
that Santa Claus eats cookies. The meaning of this proposition does not rely
on whether or not Santa Claus is eating cookies at the time of its utterance.
Santa Claus could be eating cookies at any time and the meaning of the
proposition would remain the same. The meaning is simply describing something
that is the case in the world. In contrast, the proposition, "Santa
Claus is eating a cookie right now," describes events that are happening
at the time the proposition is uttered.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Semantico-referential meaning is also present
in meta-semantical statements such as:<br />
<br />
<i>Tiger: omnivorous, a mammal</i><br />
<br />
If someone were to say that a tiger is an omnivorous animal in one context
and a mammal in another, the definition of tiger would still be the same. The
meaning of the sign tiger is describing some animal in the world, which does
not change in either circumstance.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indexical" title="Indexical"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Indexical</span></a> meaning, on the other hand, is
dependent on the context of the utterance and has rules of use. By rules of
use, it is meant that indexicals can tell you when they are used, but not
what they actually mean.<br />
<br />
<i>Example</i>: "I"</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Whom "I" refers to depends on the
context and the person uttering it.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
As mentioned, these meanings are brought about
through the relationship between the signified and the signifier. One way to
define the relationship is by placing signs in two categories: <b>referential
indexical signs,</b> also called "shifters," and <b>pure indexical
signs.</b><br />
<br />
Referential indexical signs are signs where the meaning shifts depending on
the context hence the nickname "shifters." 'I' would be considered
a referential indexical sign. The referential aspect of its meaning would be
'1st person singular' while the indexical aspect would be the person who is
speaking (refer above for definitions of semantico-referential and indexical
meaning). Another example would be:</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i>"This"</i><br />
<i>Referential: singular count</i><br />
<i>Indexical: Close by</i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
A pure indexical sign does not contribute to
the meaning of the propositions at all. It is an example of a
""non-referential use of language.""<br />
<br />
A second way to define the signified and signifier relationship is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">C.S. Peirce</span></a>'s <b>Peircean Trichotomy</b>. The
components of the trichotomy are the following:</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
1. <b>Icon</b>: the signified resembles the
signifier (signified: a dog's barking noise, signifier: bow-wow)<br />
2. <b>Index</b>: the signified and signifier are linked by proximity or the
signifier has meaning only because it is pointing to the signified<br />
3. <b>Symbol</b>: the signified and signifier are arbitrarily linked
(signified: a cat, signifier: the word cat)<br />
<br />
These relationships allow us to use signs to convey what we want to say. If
two people were in a room and one of them wanted to refer to a characteristic
of a chair in the room he would say "this chair has four legs"
instead of "a chair has four legs." The former relies on context
(indexical and referential meaning) by referring to a chair specifically in
the room at that moment while the latter is independent of the context
(semantico-referential meaning), meaning the concept chair.</div>
<h2 style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="mw-headline">Non-referential uses
of language</span></h2>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span class="editsection"><span style="color: windowtext;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pragmatics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Silverstein's "pure" indexes"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></span><span style="color: windowtext;"> <span class="mw-headline"><span id="Silverstein.27s_.22pure.22_indexes">Silverstein's "pure" indexes</span></span></span></h3>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Silverstein" title="Michael Silverstein"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Michael Silverstein</span></a> has argued that
"nonreferential" or "pure" indices do not contribute to
an utterance's referential meaning but instead "signal some particular
value of one or more contextual variables."<sup id="cite_ref-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatics#cite_note-3"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[4]</span></a></sup>
Although nonreferential indexes are devoid of semantico-referential meaning,
they do encode "pragmatic" meaning.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The sorts of contexts that such indexes can
mark are varied. Examples include:</div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><b>Sex indexes</b> are affixes or inflections
that index the sex of the speaker, e.g. the verb forms of female <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koasati_language" title="Koasati language"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Koasati</span></a> speakers take the suffix
"-s".</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><b>Deference indexes</b> are words that signal
social differences (usually related to status or age) between the
speaker and the addressee. The most common example of a deference index
is the V form in a language with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-V_distinction" title="T-V distinction"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">T-V distinction</span></a>, the widespread
phenomenon in which there are multiple second-person pronouns that
correspond to the addressee's relative status or familiarity to the speaker.
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorific" title="Honorific"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Honorifics</span></a>
are another common form of deference index and demonstrate the speaker's
respect or esteem for the addressee via special forms of address and/or
self-humbling first-person pronouns.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">An <b>Affinal taboo index</b> is an example of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avoidance_speech" title="Avoidance speech"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">avoidance speech</span></a> and produces and
reinforces sociological distance, as seen in the Aboriginal <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyirbal_language" title="Dyirbal language"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Dyirbal language</span></a> of Australia. In
this language and some others, there is a social taboo against the use
of the everyday lexicon in the presence of certain relatives
(mother-in-law, child-in-law, paternal aunt's child, and maternal
uncle's child). If any of those relatives are present, a Dyirbal speaker
has to switch to a completely separate lexicon reserved for that
purpose.</li>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In all of these cases, the
semantico-referential meaning of the utterances is unchanged from that of the
other possible (but often impermissible) forms, but the pragmatic meaning is
vastly different.</div>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span class="mw-headline"><span style="color: windowtext;">The performative</span></span><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></h3>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i>Main articles</i>: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performative_utterance" title="Performative utterance"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Performative utterance</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_act_theory" title="Speech act theory"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Speech act theory</span></a></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.L._Austin" title="J.L. Austin"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">J.L. Austin</span></a>
introduced the concept of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performative_utterance" title="Performative utterance"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">performative</span></a>, contrasted in his writing with
"constative" (i.e. descriptive) utterances. According to Austin's
original formulation, a performative is a type of utterance characterized by
two distinctive features:</div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">It is not <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_value" title="Logical value"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">truth-evaluable</span></a>
(i.e. it is neither true nor false)</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">Its uttering <i>performs</i> an action rather
than simply describing one</li>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
However, a performative utterance must also
conform to a set of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felicity_conditions" title="Felicity conditions"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">felicity conditions</span></a>.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Examples:</div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo11; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">"I hereby pronounce you man and wife."</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo11; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">"I accept your apology."</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo11; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">"This meeting is now adjourned."</li>
</ul>
<h3 style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span class="editsection"><span style="color: windowtext;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pragmatics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Jakobson's six functions of language"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></span><span style="color: windowtext;"> <span class="mw-headline"><span id="Jakobson.27s_six_functions_of_language">Jakobson's six functions of
language</span></span></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
Main
article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakobson%27s_functions_of_language" title="Jakobson's functions of language"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Jakobson's functions of language</span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roma_jakobson_theory.png"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="Description: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Roma_jakobson_theory.png/220px-Roma_jakobson_theory.png" border="0" height="100" src="file:///C:/Users/karni/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.png" width="220" /></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roma_jakobson_theory.png" title=""Enlarge" "><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="Description: http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" border="0" height="11" src="file:///C:/Users/karni/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.png" width="15" /></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
The six
factors of an effective verbal communication. To each one corresponds a
communication function (not displayed in this picture).<sup id="cite_ref-Middleton_4-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatics#cite_note-Middleton-4"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[5]</span></a></sup></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Roman Jakobson</span></a>,
expanding on the work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_B%C3%BChler" title="Karl Bühler"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Karl Bühler</span></a>,
described six "constitutive factors" of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">speech event</span></a>,
each of which represents the privileging of a corresponding function, and
only one of which is the referential (which corresponds to the <b>context</b>
of the speech event). The six constitutive factors and their corresponding
functions are diagrammed below.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>The six constitutive factors of a speech
event</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Context</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Message</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Addresser---------------------Addressee</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Contact</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Code</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br />
<b>The six functions of language</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Referential</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Poetic</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Emotive-----------------------Conative</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Phatic</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Multilingual</div>
<h2 style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="mw-headline">Areas
of interest</span></h2>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="mso-cellspacing: 1.5pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><br /></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">The Referential Function corresponds to the
factor of Context and describes a situation, object or mental state. The
descriptive statements of the referential function can consist of both
definite descriptions and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deixis" title="Deixis"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">deictic</span></a> words, e.g. "The autumn
leaves have all fallen now."</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">The Expressive (alternatively called
"emotive" or "affective") Function relates to the
Addresser and is best exemplified by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interjections" title="Interjections"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">interjections</span></a>
and other sound changes that do not alter the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denotation" title="Denotation"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">denotative
meaning</span></a> of an utterance but do add information about the
Addresser's (speaker's) internal state, e.g. "Wow, what a
view!"</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">The Conative Function engages the Addressee
directly and is best illustrated by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocative" title="Vocative"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">vocatives</span></a>
and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">imperatives</span></a>, e.g. "Tom! Come
inside and eat!"</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">The Poetic Function focuses on "the message
for its own sake"<sup id="cite_ref-Duranti_1997_5-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatics#cite_note-Duranti_1997-5"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[6]</span></a></sup>
and is the operative function in poetry as well as slogans.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phatic" title="Phatic"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Phatic</span></a> Function is language for the sake
of interaction and is therefore associated with the Contact factor. The
Phatic Function can be observed in greetings and casual discussions of
the weather, particularly with strangers.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">The Metalingual (alternatively called
"metalinguistic" or "reflexive") Function is the use
of language (what Jakobson calls "Code") to discuss or
describe itself.</li>
</ul>
<h2 style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="mw-headline">Related fields</span></h2>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
There is considerable overlap between
pragmatics and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">sociolinguistics</span></a>, since both share an
interest in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_meaning" title="Linguistic meaning"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">linguistic meaning</span></a> as determined by usage in
a speech community. However, sociolinguists tend to be more interested in
variations in language within such communities.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Pragmatics helps anthropologists relate
elements of language to broader social phenomena; it thus pervades the field
of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">linguistic anthropology</span></a>. Because pragmatics
describes generally the forces in play for a given utterance, it includes the
study of power, gender, race, identity, and their interactions with
individual speech acts. For example, the study of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">code switching</span></a>
directly relates to pragmatics, since a switch in code effects a shift in
pragmatic force.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
According to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_W._Morris" title="Charles W. Morris"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Charles W. Morris</span></a>, pragmatics tries to
understand the relationship between signs and their users, while <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">semantics</span></a>
tends to focus on the actual objects or ideas to which a word refers, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">syntax</span></a>
(or "syntactics") examines relationships among signs or symbols.
Semantics is the literal meaning of an idea whereas pragmatics is the implied
meaning of the given idea.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Speech Act Theory</span></a>,
pioneered by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.L._Austin" title="J.L. Austin"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">J.L. Austin</span></a> and further developed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">John Searle</span></a>,
centers around the idea of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performative" title="Performative"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">performative</span></a>,
a type of utterance that performs the very action it describes. Speech Act
Theory's examination of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illocutionary_act" title="Illocutionary act"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Illocutionary Acts</span></a> has many of the same goals
as pragmatics, as outlined <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatics#Areas_of_interest" title="Pragmatics"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">above</span></a>.</div>
<h2 style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="mw-headline">Pragmatics in
philosophy</span></h2>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Pragmatics (more specifically, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Speech Act
Theory's</span></a> notion of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performative" title="Performative"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">performative</span></a>)
underpins <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Judith Butler's</span></a> theory of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_performativity" title="Gender performativity"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">gender performativity</span></a>. In <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Gender Trouble</span></a></i>,
she claims that gender and sex are not natural categories, but socially
constructed roles produced by "reiterative acting."</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judith_Butler#Excitable_Speech:_A_Politics_of_the_Performative" title="Judith Butler"><i><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Excitable Speech</span></i></a> she extends her theory
of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity" title="Performativity"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">performativity</span></a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">hate speech</span></a>
and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">censorship</span></a>,
arguing that censorship necessarily strengthens any discourse it tries to
suppress and therefore, since the state has sole power to define hate speech
legally, it is the state that makes hate speech performative.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaques_Derrida" title="Jaques Derrida"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Jaques Derrida</span></a>
remarked that some work done under Pragmatics aligned well with the program
he outlined in his book <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Grammatology" title="Of Grammatology"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Of Grammatology</span></a></i>.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Benveniste" title="Émile Benveniste"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Émile Benveniste</span></a> argued that the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronouns" title="Pronouns"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">pronouns</span></a>
"I" and "you" are fundamentally distinct from other
pronouns because of their role in creating the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_%28philosophy%29" title="Subject (philosophy)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">subject</span></a>.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Gilles Deleuze</span></a>
and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" title="Félix Guattari"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Félix Guattari</span></a> discuss linguistic pragmatics
in the fourth chapter of <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Thousand_Plateaus" title="A Thousand Plateaus"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">A Thousand Plateaus</span></a></i> ("November 20,
1923--Postulates of Linguistics"). They draw three conclusions from
Austin: (1) A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performative_utterance" title="Performative utterance"><span style="color: windowtext;">performativity</span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> utterance</span></a>
does not communicate information about an act second-hand—it is the act; (2)
Every aspect of language ("semantics, syntactics, or even
phonematics") functionally interacts with pragmatics; (3) There is no
distinction between language and speech. This last conclusion attempts to
refute <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Saussure's</span></a> division between <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langue_and_parole" title="Langue and parole"><i><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">langue</span></i><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> and <i>parole</i></span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chomsky's</span></a>
distinction between <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_structure" title="Surface structure"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">surface structure</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_structure" title="Deep structure"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">deep structure</span></a>
simultaneously. </div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
Take it from Wikipedia. </div>
Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-40796423637599316692011-09-10T20:45:00.000+07:002011-09-10T20:45:19.541+07:00Quantitative linguistics<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:AllowPNG/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>AR-SA</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/> <w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/> <w:OverrideTableStyleHps/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Quantitative linguistics</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is a sub-discipline of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_linguistics" title="General linguistics"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">general linguistics</span></a> and, more specifically, of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_linguistics" title="Mathematical linguistics"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">mathematical linguistics</span></a>. Quantitative Linguistics (QL) deals with language learning, language change, and application as well as structure of natural languages. QL investigates languages using statistical methods; its most demanding objective is the formulation of language laws and, ultimately, of a general theory of language in the sense of a set of interrelated languages laws <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Synergetic_linguistics&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Synergetic linguistics (page does not exist)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Synergetic linguistics</span></a> was from its very beginning specifically designed for this purpose. QL is empirically based on the results of language statistics, a field which can be interpreted as statistics of languages or as statistics of any linguistic object. This field is not necessarily connected to substantial theoretical ambitions. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Corpus linguistics</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">computational linguistics</span></a> are other fields which contribute important empirical evidence.</span></div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="mso-cellspacing: 1.5pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;"><tbody>
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</tbody></table><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">History</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The earliest QL approaches date back in the ancient Greek and Indian world. One of the historical sources consists of applications of combinatorics to linguistic matter, another one is based on elementary statistical studies, which can be found under the header <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Colometry&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Colometry (page does not exist)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">colometry</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stichometry" title="Stichometry"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">stichometry</span></a>. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Language laws in quantitative linguistics</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In QL, the concept of law is understood as the class of law hypotheses which have been deduced from theoretical assumptions, are mathematically formulated, are interrelated with other laws in the field, and have sufficiently and successfully been tested on empirical data, i.e. which could not be refuted in spite of much effort to do so. Köhler writes about QL laws: “Moreover, it can be shown that these properties of linguistic elements and of the relations among them abide by universal laws which can be formulated strictly mathematically in the same way as common in the natural sciences. One has to bear in mind in this context that these laws are of stochastic nature; they are not observed in every single case (this would be neither necessary nor possible); they rather determine the probabilities of the events or proportions under study. It is easy to find counterexamples to each of the above-mentioned examples; nevertheless, these cases do not violate the corresponding laws as variations around the statistical mean are not only admissible but even essential; they are themselves quantitatively exactly determined by the corresponding laws. This situation does not differ from that in the natural sciences, which have since long abandoned the old deterministic and causal views of the world and replaced them by statistical/probabilistic models.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Some linguistic laws</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">There exist quite a number of proposed language laws, among them are</span></div><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Law of diversification: If linguistic categories such as parts-of-speech or inflectional endings appear in various forms it can be shown that the frequencies of their occurrences in texts are controlled by laws.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Length (or more generally, complexity) distributions. The investigation of text or dictionary frequencies of units of any kind with regard to their lengths yields regularly a number of distributions, depending on the given kind of the unit under study. By now, the following units have been studied: </span></li>
<ul type="circle"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Law of the distribution of morph lengths;</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Law of the distribution of the lengths of rhythmical units;</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Law of the distribution of sentence lengths;</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Law of the distribution of syllable lengths;</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Law of the distribution of word lengths;</span></li>
</ul></ul><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Other linguistic units which also abide by this law are e.g., letters (characters) of different complexities, the lengths of the so-called hrebs and of speech acts. The same holds for the distributions of sounds (phones) of different durations.</span></div><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Martin's law: This law concerns lexical chains which are obtained by looking up the definition of a word in a dictionary, then looking up the definition of the definition just obtained etc. Finally, all these definitions form a hierarchy of more and more general meanings, whereby the number of definitions decreases with increasing generality. Among the levels of this kind of hierarchy, there exists a number of lawful relations.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menzerath%27s_law" title="Menzerath's law"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Menzerath's law</span></a> (also, in particular in linguistics, Menzerath-Altmann law): This law states that the sizes of the constituents of a construction decrease with increasing size of the construction under study. The longer, e.g. a sentence (measured in terms of the number of clauses) the shorter the clauses (measured in terms of the number of words), or: the longer a word (in syllables or morphs) the shorter the syllables or words in sounds).</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rank-frequency laws: Virtually any kind of linguistic units abides by these relations. We will give here only a few illustrative examples: </span></li>
<ul type="circle"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The words of a text are arranged according their text frequency and assigned a rank number and the corresponding frequency. Since George Kingsley Zipf (the well-known “Zipf’s Law”), a large number of mathematical models of the relation between rank and frequency has been proposed.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A similar distribution between rank and frequency of sounds, phonemes, and letters can be observed.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Word associations: Rank and frequency of associations subjects react with on a (word) stimulus.</span></li>
</ul><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Law of language change: Growth processes in language such as vocabulary growth, the dispersion of foreign or loan words, changes in the inflectional system etc. abide by a law known in QL as Piotrowski law, and corresponds to growth models in other scientific disciplines. The Piotrowski law is a case of the so-called logistic model (cf. logistic equation). It was shown that it covers also languages acquisition processes (cf. language acquisition law).</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Text block law: Linguistic units (e.g. words, letters, syntactic functions and constructions) show a specific frequency distribution in equally large text blocks.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zipf%27s_law" title="Zipf's law"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Zipf's law</span></a>: The frequency of words is inversely proportional to their rank in frequency lists.</span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Stylistics</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The study of poetic and also non-poetic styles can be based on statistical methods; moreover, it is possible to conduct corresponding investigations on the basis of the specific forms (parameters) language laws take in texts of different styles. In such cases, QL supports research into stylistics: One of the overall aims is evidence as objective as possible also in at least part of the domain of stylistic phenomena by referring to language laws. One of the central assumptions of QL is that some laws (eg. the distribution of word lengths) require different models, at least different parameter values of the laws (distributions or functions) depending on the text sort a text belongs to. If poetic texts are under study QL methods form a sub-discipline of Quantitative Study of Literature (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylometrics" title="Stylometrics"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">stylometrics</span></a>)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Take it from Wikipedia </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
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<div style="text-align: justify;">A range of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_function" title="Grammatical function"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">functionally</span></a> based approaches to the scientific study of language have been termed "functional". The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">grammar</span></a> model developed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_C._Dik" title="Simon C. Dik"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Simon Dik</span></a> bears this qualification in its name, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_grammar" title="Functional grammar"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Functional Grammar</span></a>, as does <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Halliday" title="Michael Halliday"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Michael Halliday</span></a>'s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemic_functional_grammar" title="Systemic functional grammar"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Systemic functional grammar</span></a>.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role_and_Reference_Grammar" title="Role and Reference Grammar"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Role and Reference Grammar</span></a>, founded by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Van_Valin" title="Robert Van Valin"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Robert Van Valin</span></a> is also considerered<sup>[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span title="The material in the vicinity of this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. from March 2011">who?</span></span></a></i>]</sup> a functional theory<sup>[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from March 2011">citation needed</span></span></a></i>]</sup>. Another important figure in recent linguistic functionalism is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmy_Giv%C3%B3n" title="Talmy Givón"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Talmy Givón</span></a>, but his theorising has not been given a unique name.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Dik characterises functional grammar as follows:</div><div style="text-align: justify;">In the functional paradigm a language is in the first place conceptualized as an instrument of social interaction among human beings, used with the intention of establishing communicative relationships. Within this paradigm one attempts to reveal the instrumentality of language with respect to what people do and achieve with it in social interaction. A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">natural language</span></a>, in other words, is seen as an integrated part of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_competence" title="Communicative competence"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">communicative competence</span></a> of the natural language user. (2, p. 3)</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Because of its emphasis on usage, communicative function, and the social context of language, functional grammar differs significantly from other linguistic theories which stress purely <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_grammar" title="Formal grammar"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">formal approaches to grammar</span></a>, notably Chomskyan <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">generative grammar</span></a>. Functional grammar is strongly associated with the school of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">linguistic typology</span></a> that takes its lead from the work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Joseph Greenberg</span></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Take it from Wikipedia </div>Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-23139364040347318562011-09-10T20:27:00.000+07:002011-09-10T20:27:24.075+07:00Generative Linguistics<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:AllowPNG/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>AR-SA</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/> <w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/> <w:OverrideTableStyleHps/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;">Generative linguistics</span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"> is a school of thought within <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">linguistics</span></a> that makes use of the concept of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">generative grammar</span></a>. The term "generative grammar" is used in different ways by different people, and the term "generative linguistics" therefore has a range of different, though overlapping, meanings.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;">Formally, a generative grammar is defined as one that is fully explicit. It is a finite set of rules that can be applied to <i>generate</i> all those and only those sentences (often, but not necessarily, infinite in number) that are grammatical in a given language. This is the definition that is offered by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Noam Chomsky</span></a>, who invented the term,<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative_linguistics#cite_note-0"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[1]</span></a></sup> and by most dictionaries of linguistics. <i>Generate</i> is being used as a technical term with a particular sense. To say that a grammar generates a sentence means that the grammar "assigns a structural description" to the sentence.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative_linguistics#cite_note-1"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[2]</span></a></sup></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;">The term generative grammar is also used to label the approach to linguistics taken by Chomsky and his followers. Chomsky's approach is characterised by the use of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformational_grammar" title="Transformational grammar"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">transformational grammar</span></a> – a theory that has changed greatly since it was first promulgated by Chomsky in his 1957 book <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_Structures" title="Syntactic Structures"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Syntactic Structures</span></a></i> – and by the assertion of a strong linguistic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nativism" title="Nativism"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">nativism</span></a> (and therefore an assertion that some set of fundamental characteristics of all human languages must be the same). The term "ge(ne)rative linguistics" is often applied to the earliest version of Chomsky's transformational grammar, which was associated with a distinction between the "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_structure" title="Deep structure"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">deep structure</span></a>" and "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_structure" title="Surface structure"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">surface structure</span></a>" of sentences.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Take it from Wikipedia. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div>Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-21025169238383640182011-09-05T13:57:00.002+07:002011-09-23T21:44:45.300+07:00VIDEO and MUSIC<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"></span><span style="font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Abstract</span> <br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Language does not exist in a vacuum. It serves and is molded by other systems in human mind. Because it is used for conveying ideas, its structure and function must reflect these ideas. Because it must be spoken and understood easily and efficiently, its structure and function are forced to stay within the limits imposed by people’s processing capacities. Because it is used for communication within a complex social and cultural system, its structure and function are molded by these force as well. Yet once people have learned how to use language, it wields a power of its own. It aids them in thinking about some ideas and hinders them in thinking about others. It molds many aspects of their daily affairs.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Over the centuries these forces have been recognize and taken up within two fields of study, linguistics universals and linguistics relativity. The cognitive categories seem arise from more abstract conception events and relations, although there may be no principled way to distinguish these from perceptual categories. The categories to be examined cover number, negativity, cause, effect and time. Social categories seem to have their roots in the social and cultural conditions in which people live. The two main clauses of social categories to be considered probably derive from the universal characteristics of families and human conversations.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Keywords</span></div><span style="font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Language Thought, Cognitive categories, Social Categories. Universal, Relativity, </span><br />
<br />
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">I.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: ""Times New Roman"","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Pendahuluan</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Latar belakang Masalah</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Apakah bahasa selalu selaras dengan pikiran? Pertanyaan ini akan terjawab melalui sajian yang mencakup Pemerosesan bahasa menjadi pikiran dan Hipotesis Relativitas bahasa.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Bahasa bukan saja merupakan bentuk dari isi penuturan tetapi juga merupakan alat atau instrument dari proses berpikir.Jelas kiranya bahwa hasil yang dapat diperoleh dengan menggunakan suatu teknik akan tergantung dari baik buruknya teknik yang dipergunakan.Disamping itu, bahasa juga bukan hanya merupakan alat mati dari pikiran.Di luar logika, bahasa mempunyai peranan-peranan lain di bidang kehidupan manusia.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">II. ISI</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">a. Bahasa</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Bahasa adalah salah satu anugerah Tuhan yang memungkinkan manusia untuk mengelola pikirannya dan mengendalikan pengaruh luar terhadap pikirannya.Manusia sebagaimana makhluk lainnya berinteraksi dengan lingkungannya dan memproses data dari organ pancainderanya untuk menciptakan suatu representasi utama dari dunia.Representasi dunia menjadi sumber pesan yang diolah dalam pikiran.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Pesan-pesan tersebut tidak mengalir langsung dari panca indera ke sel motoric, tetapi lebih dahulu masuk ke dalam unit pemerosesan khusus dan di dalam unit tersebut tersebut pesan-pesan tersebut bersaing dengan pesan-pesan lain.Pesan yang lebih kuat selanjutnya mengaktivasi sel-sel motorik untuk melakukan fungsinya.Untuk mengolah citra sensor tersebut (Bikerto, 1995:101).Kelihatannya pemerosesan pesan melalui tahapan-tahapan yang lama meskipun kita tidak pernah menghitung atau merasakan lamanya proses tersebut berlangsung.Segalanya berlangsung dengan waktu sangat singkat.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Pikiran adalah proses pengolahan stimulus yang berlangsung dalam domain representasi utama. Proses tersebut dapat dikategorikan sebagai proses perhitungan (computational process).Misalnya seekor kelelawar menggunakan getaran (sonar) untuk memancing dan menangkap serangga dan ini bias dianggap sebagai aktivitas yang dilakukan di bawah sadar.Akan tetapi konsep pikiran yang berlaku dalam aktivitas kelelawar tersebut berbeda dengan yang berlaku pada manusia.Pikiran manusia tidak terbatas hanya untuk itu dan tidak dilakukan dengan cara sesederhana itu karena manusia dikaruniai satu tingkat representasi sekunder.Pada tingkat ini apa yang terwujud pada tingkat pertama diulangi dengan cara berbeda yang diorganisasi dengan lebih ketat dan lebih abstrak.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Di bawah ini S.U.S Nababan (1998:127-144) akan membahas hubungan-hubungan lain dari bahasa dan pikiran yakni khususnya hubungannya dengan :</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Kategori-kategori kognitif tertentu</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Ada beberapa kategori persepsi batasan-batasan dalam bentuk bahasa dan pengaruh bahasa pada pikiran yakni:</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.3pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">1.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: ""Times New Roman"","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Kategori-kategori kognitif</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Cara-cara berpikir manusia sebagai tanggapan terhadap berbagai macam informasi yang diterimanya melalui berbagai inderanya dan bagaimana dia memprosesnya dalam pikiran dan membaginya dalam kelompok-kelompok guna penyimpanan dalam ingatan dan menemukannya kembali dengan mudah yang disebut kategorisasi.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.3pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">2.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: ""Times New Roman"","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Bilangan</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Bahasa mempunyai cara tertentu untuk mengungkapkan kategori bilangan tunggal dan jamak.Selain itu juga membedakan bilangan dasar dan bilangan urutan.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">3. Peniadaan</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Salah satu ciri semesta yang ditemukan Greenberg ialah bahwa peniadaan yang negative ditandai terhadap yang positif x negatif.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Dalam bahasa Indonesia, kekomplekan negatif itu timbul dengan penambahan bahan (kata atau morfem) kepada sesuatu kalimat positif misalnya Ali suka manga x Ali tidak suka mangga.Suatu peniadaan diungkapkan secara lebih kompleks dengan menggunakan banyak morfem.Oleh karena itu diperlukan keterangan tambahan untuk menyatakan bahwa sesuatu benda atau hal bukan atau tidak dalam suatu keadaan.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">4. Sebab akibat</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Menurut Greenberg jikalau suatu bahasa mempunyai ungkapan-ungkapan yang berbeda kompleksitas kata atau bentuknya missal dari ketiga kata bahasa Inggris: died, die, kill, maka keadaan itu diungkapkan dengan kata-kata yang lebih kompleks.Hal serupa dapat kita lihat dalam “sebab perubahan keadaan” atau menyebabkan perubahan keadaan.misalnya resmi & resmikan, panjang & perpanjangan dan cepat & percepatan.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">5. Waktu</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Semua bahasa ada perbedaan antara waktu sekarang, waktu yang lalu dan waktu yang akan datang.Dalam bahasa Indonesia, waktu yang lalu dan waktu yang akan datang ditandai dengan sudah, pernah, telah dan akan untuk waktu yang akan datang.Akan tetapi kalau ada keterangan waktu seperti kemarin, tadi pagi dan sebagainya.Kata kerja ini tidak perlu ditandai dengan penggunaan kata bantuJadi, dalam lingkungan kata keterangan waktu, Penandaan kata kerja untuk waktu adalah fakultatif.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Kategori-kategori sosial</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Kategori-kategori sosial berakar pada keadaan hidup manusia sebagai makhluk sosial dan kultural.Ada empat kelompok kategori ini yakni:</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">1. Perkerabatan</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Hubungan perkerabatan dan istilah-istilah yang dipakai yang mengungkapkan system perkerabatan itu telah banyak dikaji ahli-ahli antropologi.Tidak terlalu sukar untuk mengkaji perkerabatan ini, oleh Karena itu seseorang dapat mengumpulkan istilah-istilah yang digunakan serta mendaftarkan orang-orang yang dapat dirujuk oleh setiap istilah seperti dikerjakan oleh Burling (1970).Sebagai contoh kita mengambil istilah uncle yang dalam budaya Inggris digunakan untuk menyebut saudara laki-laki ayah.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Greenberg melakukan perbandingan demikian dan menemukan bahwa semua bahasa membedakan paling sedikit 3 dasar atau prinsip perkerabatan yakni generasi, hubungan darah, dan jenis kelamin.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">2. Kata Ganti Orang</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Istilah-istilah perkerabatan timbul dari system perkawinan dan keluarga dan kata ganti orang memang diperlukan dalam percakapan untuk pembicara (saya) dan orang lawan bicara (engkau, kamu, saudara, ibu, bapak).Sistem kata ganti orang boleh dikatakan sistem yang semesta yakni untuk membedakan antara ketiga peran ini (orang pertama, orang kedua dan orang ketiga).</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">3. Ungkapan-ungkapan.dan sapaan</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Berhubungan erat dengan sistem kata ganti orang ialah kata sapaan yaitu kata atau istilah yang dipakai menyapa lawan bicara.Kata sapaan dipakai orang kepada lawan bicara erat kaitan dengan dan berdasarkan tanggapan atau persepsinya atas hubungan pembicara dengan lawan bicara.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Sapaan itu terdiri atas :</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">a. Nama kecil</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">b. Gelar (Tuan, Nyonya, dan sebagainya)</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">c. Istilah perkerabatan</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">d. Nama keluarga</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">e. Nama hubungan perkerabatan dengan nama seorang kerabatnya.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">4. Kelas sosial.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">B. Keterkaitan Bahasa pada Pikiran</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Bagaimana bahasa berkaitan dengan cara manusia berpikir tentang dunia ini? Apakah semua orang di dunia ini memiliki pandangan yang sama tentang realitas yang terungkap melalui bahasa yang berbeda? Apakah bahasa mempengaruhi cara penuturnya berpikir tentang dunia ini? Bagaimana hubungan antara bahasa dan pikiran? Perlukah bahasa itu dipikirkan? Apakah bahasa terlibat ketika berpikir atau sebaliknya?</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Terbukti bahwa dunia ini dibangun dengan berbagai benda yang dianggap sama oleh setiap orang, terserah mereka menggunakan kata-kata mana untuk memberi nama atau acuan baginya.Salah satu usaha untuk memberi nama atau acuan pada benda-benda tersebut.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Sebagian orang berpendapat bahwa orang yang berpikir tanpa bahasa.Apa yang ada dalam pikiran manusia hanya dapat muncul tanpa harus didahulu oleh peran bahasa.Pandangan ini mungkin dihubungkan dengan tanpa berujar katapun manusia dapat memikirkan tentang sesuatu yang sebenarnya dapat diujarkan melalui bahasa.Kebisuan bahasa tidak menyebabkan kehampaan berpikir.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Muller (1987) menegaskan bahwa bahasa dan pikiran selalu terkait tidak dapat dipisahkan satu sama lainnya.Ujaran yang dihasilkan oleh alat ucap dikendalikan oleh pikiran, dan sebaliknya hasil pikiran memunculkan kategori atau konsep sebuah benda atau objek.Ada kesalingtergantungan antara bahasa dan pikiran atau sebaliknya.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Kalau dihubungkan dengan kerja otak, apakah ketika melakukan kegiatan motorik, otak pikiran dan gerakan motorik yang dilakukan bekerja sama.Ketika seseorang berkomunikasi dengan bahasa tanda umumnya dieksperisikan melalui gerakan tangan atau jari jemari atau kerjasama yang erat antara pikiran dan bahasa tanda.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Piaget juga mengemukan yang demikian, ada keterkaitan antara pikiran dan bahasa.Bahasa adalah representasi dari pikiran.Apa yang diungkapkan seseorang melalui ujarannya tidak lain dari hasil proses berpikir, terlepas dari kebenaran atau kesalahan hasil pikiran tersebut.Menurut Piaget ada dua pikiran yakni:</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">a. Pikiran terarah </span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Pikiran yang terarah adalah pikiran yang menghasilkan tindakan atau ujaran yang dapat dipertanggungjawabkan dan memiliki landasan kuat.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">b. Pikiran tidak terarah</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Pikiran yang tidak terarah adalah pikiran yang sering menimbulkan kekeliruan atau dampak tidak terduga.Mungkin itu sebabnya terjadi tergelincir lidah.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">B. Pengaruh Bahasa pada Pikiran.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">a. Berbagai hipotesis</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Beberapa ahli mencoba memaparkan hubungan antara bahasa dan pikiran, atau lebih disempitkan lagi, bahasa mempengaruhi pikiran.Beberapa ahli tersebut antara lain Von Humboldt, Edward Saphir, Benyamin Whorf dan Ernst Cassier.Dari keempat tokoh tersebut hanya Edward Sapir dan Benyamin Whort yang banyak dikutip</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> oleh berbagai peneliti.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Sapir dan Worf mengatakan bahwa tidak ada dua bahasa yang memiliki kesamaan untuk dipertimbangkan sebagai realitas sosial yang sama.Sapir dan Worf menguraikan dua hipotesis mengenai keterkaitan bahasa dan pikiran.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">1. Hipotesis pertama adalah linguistic relativity hypothesis yang menyatakan bahwa perbedan struktur bahasa secara umum parallel dengan perbedaan kognitif non bahasa (nonlinguistic cognitive).Perbedaan bahasa menyebabkan perbedaan pikiran orang yang menggunakan bahasa tersebut.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">2. Hipotesis kedua adalah linguistics determinism yang menyatakan bahwa struktur bahasa mempengaruhi cara individu mempersepsi dan menalar dunia.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">b. Perbedaan kosa kata</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Salah satu bukti bahasa mempengaruhi pikiran yang dikemukakan Sapir & Whorf bahwa dalam suatu bahasa mungkin terdapat lebih banyak kata dalam sesuatu ranah yang domain dari bahasa lain.Misalnya dalam bahasa Indonesia ada tiga kata untuk kata rice dalam bahasa Inggris yakni padi, beras, nasi.Boas (1911) memberikan contoh dari bahasa Eskimo yang memiliki 4 kata untuk snow (salju) sedangkan dalam bahasa Indonesia hanya satu kata.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">c. Bahasa adalah data pemikiran</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Pada saat yang sama, sangatlah penting untuk menekankan pentingnya bahasa dalam kaitannya dengan pemikiran filosofis, meskipun penekanan tadi akhir-akhir ini sudah berlebihan.Bahasa bukan sekedar alat berkomunikasi dengan orang lain melainkan juga diperlukan untuk berpikir.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Bahasa mungkin menyebabkan kesalahan-kesalahan filosofis karena bentuk verbnya memberikan kesan yang menyesatkan mengenai struktur realitas atau karena dua kalimat yang benar-benar tidak menyatakan hal yang sama disebabkan memiliki struktur tata bahasa yang sama.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Bahasa dan pikiran memiliki keterkaitan yang saling mempengaruhi.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: -21.3pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">II.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: ""Times New Roman"","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Penutup</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Bahasa adalah salah satu anugerah Tuhan yang memungkinkan manusia untuk mengelola pikirannya dan mengendalikan pengaruh luar terhadap pikirannya.Manusia sebagaimana makhluk lainnya berinteraksi dengan lingkungannya dan memproses data dari organ pancainderanya untuk menciptakan suatu representasi utama dari dunia.Representasi dunia menjadi sumber pesan yang diolah dalam pikiran.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Pikiran adalah proses pengolahan stimulus yang berlangsung dalam domain representasi utama. Proses tersebut dapat dikategorikan sebagai proses perhitungan (computational process)</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42.55pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Ada beberapa kategori persepsi batasan-batasan dalam bentuk bahasa dan pengaruh bahasa pada pikiran yakni: Kategori-kategori kognitif dan Kategori-kategori sosial.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42.55pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Pengaruh bahasa terhadap pikiran ada tiga yaitu Hipotesis relative kebahasaan, Perbedaan kosa kata, dan bahasa adalah data pemikiran.</span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42.55pt;"><span style="color: black;">by carny </span></div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42.55pt;"><br />
</div><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42.55pt;"><br />
</div><div style="line-height: 200%;"><br />
</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;"><span style="color: black; font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">DAFTAR PUSTAKA</span></div><div align="center" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><span style="font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Arifuddin, 2010.<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Neuropsikolingustik</i>.Jakarta: Rajawali Press.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Clark, Herbert H, Clark, Eve V. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Psychology and</i></span><br />
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Language</span></i><span style="font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">.1977.Stranford University.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Djojosuroto, Kinayati, 2007,<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> Filsafat Bahasa</i>.Yogyakarta: Pustaka </span><br />
<span style="font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> book publisher.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Harley, Trevor A. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The psychology of Language from data to teori</i>.1995.British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Steinberg, Danny D.,Nagata Hiroshi, Aline, David P. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> 2001.<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Psycolinguistics: Language, </i></span><br />
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Mind, and World.</span></i><span style="font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";">Second Edition.Person Education </span><br />
<span style="font-family: ""sans-serif"","serif";"> Limited.London.Longman.</span><br />
<br />
<br />
<div style="line-height: 200%;"><br />
</div><div style="line-height: 200%;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></div>Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-41585125410309411762011-09-01T19:58:00.001+07:002011-09-06T16:24:50.297+07:00LEARN TO SPEAK FRENCH-5 EASY METHODS TO LEARN FRENCH<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
French is a wonderful language and it's the most cherished all over thw
world. You can learn to speak french online using free tools that are
already available. Before the advent of the internet, it was very
difficult to learn a foreign language, especially French that has some
norms attached to it. As a great language, you need to follow some basic
tips in order to be able to speak French fluently without mincing words
and sentences.
Let's look at 5 methods you can learn French easily.
i). Learn French From Audio Clips
This is the first method of learning how to speak french. There are
several audio clips out there, specifically produced by French citizens.
As you listen to them, you will be able to master french culture, the
norms and how to align your sentences and phrases to match the intended
thought.
ii). Learn French From Books
When last did you check your local library? Maybe last year or
thereabout. There are huge collection of French resources available on
your local library and bookstores. The authors of these book are so
conversant with French that they decided to pour out their thoughts and
packaged it for you. At your leisure, you can browse through the pages
of the book and learn at will.
iii). Free French Lessons
Another method of mastering French is through free french lessons. There
are hundreds of sites out there that provides free lessons for you.
There are basic, intermediate as well as advanced French lessons for
anyone who is serious about becoming fluent in french. You will learn
the basic words, attempt some questions, participate on French quizzes
and play some interesting games. These practices are aimed to bring you
closer to speaking french and it works if you stick to it.
iv). Learn French Software
In order to learn to speak french faster and with an accurate overview,
resorting to a french learning software could make a huge difference.
Majority of the french software out there have a friendly user
interface. You can learn at will and listen as French citizens coach you
on the use of words and synonyms. I have observed that using a software
is the most easiest and fastest method of mastering french.
v). Attend A French Seminar
If you have the time for this, maybe you should attend a French coaching
seminar. This probably will cost you some money but it works. However,
I'm recommending this method only as an addition to any of the above
methods of learning how to speak french. Truth is, with these five
methods, your journey is already on the smooth end. To download a <a class="blank" href="http://learnfrenchsoftwarereview.org/learn-french-software-%E2%80%93-top-5-french-language-software-to-download/" target="_blank">Learn French Software</a>, visit the site here <a class="blank" href="http://learnfrenchsoftwarereview.org/" target="_blank">http://www.learnfrenchsoftwarereview.org</a><br />
take it from http://www.articledeck.com/Learn-To-Speak-French-5-Easy-Methods-To-Learn-French.html </div>
Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-39476549182223558612011-08-31T09:41:00.000+07:002011-08-31T09:41:00.023+07:00NEW ENGLISH FILE INTERMEDIATE-A NEW ERA<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">English grammar is the body of rules that describe the structure of expressions in the English language. This includes the structure of words, phrases, clauses and sentences. A text that contains more than one sentence is no longer in the realm of grammar but of discourse. The grammar of a language is approached in two ways: descriptive grammar is based on analysis of text corpora and describes grammatical structures thereof, whereas prescriptive grammar attempts to use the identified rules of a given language as a tool to govern the linguistic behavior of speakers.<br />
The important aspects of a language are grammar, punctuations and vocabulary. The grammar is the most important part of a language. One can never learn English until he learn the grammar and other basic of the language. <br />
New English File Intermediate is a book that is use as a reference text book to learn English. Grammar is basically a set of rules that is being followed by the language for its proper and correct use. The books has a detail discussion on topics of the grammar includes tenses, parts of speeches, articles, active and passive voice, models etc. The books contain an easy explanation for each and every topic of the grammar. Punctuation is also an important part of the language one can never learn grammar and English until he is not aware of punctuations. The book contains a good description of it and helps you learn better. The book has a great vocabulary and thus helps you to learn and express yourself in a better an easy way. <br />
The book has an honor of Bestselling General English course for Adults, British English. <br />
The book is divided into different levels and one can opt for the book that is best for him. Beginner - 2009, Elementary - 2004, Pre-Intermediate - 2005, Intermediate - 2006, and Upper-Intermediate – 2008. The course that get’s students talking. <br />
Key features of the book: A Study Link package that helps teachers and students, including Multi ROM, websites, and video. Lessons that work, that are fun, and that get students talking. Grammar Banks with rules and exercises, Vocabulary Banks with exercises. Practical and Colloquial English lessons linked to the Study Link videos. The book is also provided with a test and Assessment CD-ROMs. <br />
Teachers know and love New English File for giving them lessons, that work, lessons that are fun - and lessons that really do get students talking. <br />
Expanding to a six-level series for the first time, New English File is now the course that gets more students talking. Advanced-level students can benefit from the increasingly popular English File mix - irresistible topics and the right balance of language, motivation, and opportunity. The iPack is a total digital teaching resource. It gives you the Student's Book content, plus extra interactive resources, and is compatible with any Interactive Whiteboard. The in-built functionality also allows you to use the iPack effectively with just a computer and a projector, or simply a laptop. <br />
Author has been writing articles from last three years and he loves to write on various topics and with this post we wants to show the information on <a href="https://www.bebc.co.uk/new-english-file-intermediate-students-book-2nd-edition/9780194518000/"> <b> New English File Intermediate </b></a>. <br />
TAKE IT FROM http://www.articledeck.com/New-English-File-Intermediate-%E2%80%93-A-New-Era-of-Learning.html <span class="article_separator"></span></div>Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-39976415139337784922011-08-27T16:48:00.000+07:002011-08-27T16:48:02.202+07:00INDICATIF<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 720px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><table align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="width: 690px;"><tbody>
<tr><td align="center" colspan="4"><span style="color: red;"><em><strong>I N D I C A T I F</strong></em></span></td> </tr>
<tr> <td width="25%"> <table border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td colspan="2"><span style="color: blue;"><strong><em>Présent</em></strong></span></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>je<br />
tu<br />
il<br />
nous<br />
vous<br />
ils</td> <td>promets<br />
promets<br />
promet<br />
promettons<br />
promettez<br />
promettent</td> </tr>
</tbody> </table></td> <td width="25%"> <table border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td colspan="2"><span style="color: blue;"><strong><em>Imparfait</em></strong></span></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>je<br />
tu<br />
il<br />
nous<br />
vous<br />
ils</td> <td>promettais<br />
promettais<br />
promettait<br />
promettions<br />
promettiez<br />
promettaient</td> </tr>
</tbody> </table></td> <td width="25%"> <table border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td colspan="2"><span style="color: blue;"><strong><em>Passé simple</em></strong></span></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>je<br />
tu<br />
il<br />
nous<br />
vous<br />
ils</td> <td>promis<br />
promis<br />
promit<br />
promîmes<br />
promîtes<br />
promirent</td> </tr>
</tbody> </table></td> <td width="25%"> <table border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td colspan="2"><span style="color: blue;"><strong><em>Futur simple</em></strong></span></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>je<br />
tu<br />
il<br />
nous<br />
vous<br />
ils</td> <td>promettrai<br />
promettras<br />
promettra<br />
promettrons<br />
promettrez<br />
promettront</td> </tr>
</tbody> </table></td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <table border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td colspan="3"><span style="color: blue;"><strong><em>Passé composé</em></strong></span></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>j’<br />
tu<br />
il<br />
nous<br />
vous<br />
ils</td> <td>ai<br />
as<br />
a<br />
avons<br />
avez<br />
ont</td> <td>promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis</td> </tr>
</tbody> </table></td> <td> <table border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td colspan="3"><span style="color: blue;"><strong><em>Plus que parfait</em></strong></span></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>j’<br />
tu<br />
il<br />
nous<br />
vous<br />
ils</td> <td>avais<br />
avais<br />
avait<br />
avions<br />
aviez<br />
avaient</td> <td>promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis</td> </tr>
</tbody> </table></td> <td> <table border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td colspan="3"><span style="color: blue;"><strong><em>Passé antérieur</em></strong></span></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>j’<br />
tu<br />
il<br />
nous<br />
vous<br />
ils</td> <td>eus<br />
eus<br />
eut<br />
eûmes<br />
eûtes<br />
eurent</td> <td>promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis</td> </tr>
</tbody> </table></td> <td> <table border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td colspan="3"><span style="color: blue;"><strong><em>Futur antérieur</em></strong></span></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>j’<br />
tu<br />
il<br />
nous<br />
vous<br />
ils</td> <td>aurai<br />
auras<br />
aura<br />
aurons<br />
aurez<br />
auront</td> <td>promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis</td> </tr>
</tbody> </table></td> </tr>
</tbody> </table></td> </tr>
<tr> <td height="14"> <img alt="" class="aligncenter" height="46" src="http://www.thehartmangrouppr.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/Logo1.jpg" width="164" /></td> </tr>
</tbody> </table><table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 720px;"><tbody>
<tr> <td> <table align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="width: 690px;"><tbody>
<tr> <td align="center" colspan="4"><span style="color: red;"><em><strong>S U B J O N C T I F</strong></em></span></td> </tr>
</tbody> <tbody>
<tr> <td width="25%"> <table border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td colspan="3"><span style="color: blue;"><strong><em>Présent</em></strong></span></td> </tr>
<tr> <td><em>que </em><br />
<em>que<br />
qu’<br />
que<br />
que<br />
qu’</em></td> <td>je<br />
tu<br />
il<br />
nous<br />
vous<br />
ils</td> <td>promette<br />
promettes<br />
promette<br />
promettions<br />
promettiez<br />
promettent</td> </tr>
</tbody> </table></td> <td width="25%"> <table border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td colspan="3"><span style="color: blue;"><strong><em>Imparfait</em></strong></span></td> </tr>
<tr> <td><em>que </em><br />
<em>que<br />
qu’<br />
que<br />
que<br />
qu’</em></td> <td>je<br />
tu<br />
il<br />
nous<br />
vous<br />
ils</td> <td>promisse<br />
promisses<br />
promît<br />
promissions<br />
promissiez<br />
promissent</td> </tr>
</tbody> </table></td> <td width="25%"> <table border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td colspan="4"><span style="color: blue;"><strong><em>Passé</em></strong></span></td> </tr>
<tr> <td><em>que </em><br />
<em>que<br />
qu’<br />
que<br />
que<br />
qu’</em></td> <td>j’<br />
tu<br />
il<br />
nous<br />
vous<br />
ils</td> <td>aie<br />
aies<br />
ait<br />
ayons<br />
ayez<br />
aient</td> <td>promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis</td> </tr>
</tbody> </table></td> <td width="25%"> <table border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td colspan="4"><span style="color: blue;"><strong><em>Plus que parfait</em></strong></span></td> </tr>
<tr> <td><em>que</em><br />
<em>que<br />
qu’<br />
que<br />
que<br />
qu’</em></td> <td>j’<br />
tu<br />
il<br />
nous<br />
vous<br />
ils</td> <td>eusse<br />
eusses<br />
eût<br />
eussions<br />
eussiez<br />
eussent</td> <td>promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis</td> </tr>
</tbody> </table></td> </tr>
</tbody> </table></td> </tr>
<tr> <td height="14" style="text-align: center;"><img alt="" height="17" src="http://forum.planete-astronomie.com/images/avatars/gallery/perso/logo-membre-forum-lune.png" width="17" /> French expression: “<span style="color: red;"><em><strong>Promettre la lune…</strong></em></span>” (“<span style="color: blue;"><strong>To promise the moon…</strong></span>“) <img alt="" height="17" src="http://forum.planete-astronomie.com/images/avatars/gallery/perso/logo-membre-forum-lune.png" width="17" /></td> </tr>
</tbody> </table><table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 720px;"><tbody>
<tr> <td> <table align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="width: 690px;"><tbody>
<tr> <td align="center" colspan="2"><span style="color: red;"><em><strong>C O N D I T I O N N E L</strong></em></span></td> <td align="center" colspan="2"><span style="color: red;"><em><strong>I M P É R A T I F</strong></em></span></td> </tr>
<tr> <td width="25%"> <table border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td colspan="2"><span style="color: blue;"><strong><em>Présent</em></strong></span></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>je<br />
tu<br />
il<br />
nous<br />
vous<br />
ils</td> <td>promettrais<br />
promettrais<br />
promettrait<br />
promettrions<br />
promettriez<br />
promettraient</td> </tr>
</tbody> </table></td> <td width="25%"> <table border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td colspan="3"><span style="color: blue;"><strong><em>Passé</em></strong></span></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>j’<br />
tu<br />
il<br />
nous<br />
vous<br />
ils</td> <td>aurais<br />
aurais<br />
aurait<br />
aurions<br />
auriez<br />
auraient</td> <td>promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis<br />
promis</td> </tr>
</tbody> </table></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><span style="color: blue;"><strong><em>Présent </em></strong></span><br />
promets<br />
promettons<br />
promettez</td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><span style="color: blue;"><strong><em>Passé </em></strong></span><br />
aie promis<br />
ayons promis<br />
ayez promis</td> </tr>
</tbody> </table></td> </tr>
<tr> <td height="14" style="text-align: center;"><strong> A classic (or maybe just “tired”) movie line (not just French movies!):</strong> “<span style="color: red;"><strong><em>Ce n’est pas une menace, c’est une promesse…</em></strong></span>”<br />
(“<strong><span style="color: blue;">It’s not a threat, it’s a promise…</span></strong>“)</td> </tr>
</tbody> </table><div style="text-align: center;"><img alt="" class="aligncenter" height="94" src="http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTcK1vGPtwo5xF4EIUSbWOSDW6Bohtc_S60CuEjd21NbgpapigoUA" width="69" /></div><table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 720px;"><tbody>
<tr> <td> <table align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="width: 690px;"><tbody>
<tr> <td align="center" colspan="2"><span style="color: red;"><em><strong>I N F I N I T I F</strong></em></span></td> <td align="center" colspan="2"><span style="color: red;"><em><strong>P A R T I C I P E</strong></em></span></td> </tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="25%"><span style="color: blue;"><strong><em>Présent</em></strong></span>promettre</td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><span style="color: blue;"><strong><em>Passé</em></strong></span>avoir promis</td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><span style="color: blue;"><strong><em>Présent</em></strong></span>promettant</td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><span style="color: blue;"><strong><em>Passé</em></strong></span>promis<br />
promise<br />
promis<br />
promises<br />
ayant promis</td> </tr>
</tbody> </table></td> </tr>
<tr> <td height="14"> </td></tr>
</tbody></table>Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-16781860940829854582011-08-25T19:12:00.002+07:002011-08-25T19:12:34.432+07:00Top ten ways to teach values to your kids<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:AllowPNG/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>AR-SA</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/> <w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/> <w:OverrideTableStyleHps/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal">In a consumer-driven society that broadcasts values that don’t reflect what you believe, how can fathers teach values to their kids? Here are ten ideas to help you:</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Tell them your life stories and teach through your stories</div><div class="MsoNormal">Kids love to hear stories about your childhood. Weave in some moral dilemmas and you’ve got great opportunities to teach values to them. It certainly beats lecturing your kids!</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Live your own life according to your values—walk the talk.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Kids learn by imitating, especially at a young age. They are very adept at seeing if what you say and what you do are matching up. Don’t give them confusing signals; follow your own values every moment.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Expose them to your religion or faith</div><div class="MsoNormal">It seems especially important today to let them know that they’re not alone. Providing your kids with a community of faith will strengthen their values and provide parents some “leverage”</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Pay attention to who else might be teaching values to your kids</div><div class="MsoNormal">Get to know your child’s teachers, coaches, relatives, etc. Anyone who spends time with your kids may be influencing them. Know their values and beliefs as well.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Ask your kids questions that will stimulate dialogue about values</div><div class="MsoNormal">Telling them what values they should have won’t always be effective, especially when your kids get older. Asking them “curious” questions will allow discussions that will eventually lead to values. “What did you think about that fight,” may be more effective than, “He shouldn’t have started that fight!”</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Talk to them about values in a relaxed and easy way</div><div class="MsoNormal">Nothing will turn your kids off more than preaching values to them after they’ve screwed up! Talk to them when everyone’s relaxed, and do it in a light, conversational manner. They’ll be much more likely to be listening rather than tuning you out.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Read them fairy tales when they’re younger</div><div class="MsoNormal">Fairy tales capture the imagination of kids and can easily lead to a discussion of values. Kids will learn the most concerning values when they’re excited about the topic.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Involve your kids in art, activities, or helping others while limiting TV and video games</div><div class="MsoNormal">Kids learn values when they experience them. Allow them to experience helping others and involve them in activities that will expand their creativity.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Have frequent conversations about values in your household</div><div class="MsoNormal">This lets your kids know that it’s important and it’s not just something you talk about when they do something wrong.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Have high expectations for your kids’ value systems</div><div class="MsoNormal">Kids will tend to rise to the level of expectation you have for them. Their value system will often reflect yours if the expectations are high. by Mark Brandenburg</div><div class="MsoNormal"> by Mark Brandenburg</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
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</div>Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-61330995611960077082011-08-25T19:10:00.002+07:002011-09-06T16:26:20.210+07:00Tourism objects in Loksado<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Loksado is one of tourism object in south Kalimantan ,it is located in Hulu Sungai Selatan Regency .This place has many tourism object such as Haratai Waterfall, hot water spring, long house and the most interesting place is bamboo rafting. Loksado is a district in hilly area. Dayak people as native and now many new comers come and live in loksado. It is abaout 38 kms from Kandangan the capital regency and takes time 1 hour by taxi. <br />
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Loksado can be reached by a taxi or motorcycle, as you arrive in Loksado you can spend night at hotel in Loksado and then you can arrange your trip. These are the descriptions of tourism in Loksado, we begin from Haratai waterfall, it is nice place to visit, the waterfall is about 20 meters tall and 9 km from Loksdo, it can be reached by on foot and motorcycle. Here you can feel the atmosphere of tropic forest and fresh air of the Meratus Mountain. If you are lucky you can see some animals like monkey, pig, and long nose monkey.</div>
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The other interesting place is hot water spring in Tanuhi this place good for swimming, here also is available a good hotel. This water is believe as medicine for skin problems. The third place is Long house or local people call Balai. Long house has many functions such as media for socializing, ritual events and the most important thing is they live together there. Usually the long house is stayed by many families and the biggest long house is Balai Malaris two kilometers from Loksado. Dayak people do the ritual ceremony three times each year as thank to god.</div>
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The last is bamboo rafting, this adventure bring us to an good experience to enjoy the stream of Amandit river. Here we can enjoy the natural view and see the panorama of Amandit river. Bamboo rafting starts from Loksado and finish in Muara Hatip it takes time 3 and half hours depend on the depth of river. In Muara Hatip hotel is also available. Here visitor can take a rest for a while and feel the atmosphere of villages life. However Loksado not only give an alternative tourist destination to visit but also is able to give a new experience to the visitors. </div>
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Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-744889815019585122011-08-25T19:09:00.000+07:002011-09-06T16:25:35.600+07:00Top ten ways to teach values to your kids<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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In a consumer-driven society that broadcasts values that don’t reflect what you believe, how can fathers teach values to their kids? Here are ten ideas to help you: <br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Tell them your life stories and teach through your stories</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Kids love to hear stories about your childhood. Weave in some moral dilemmas and you’ve got great opportunities to teach values to them. It certainly beats lecturing your kids!</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Live your own life according to your values—walk the talk.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Kids learn by imitating, especially at a young age. They are very adept at seeing if what you say and what you do are matching up. Don’t give them confusing signals; follow your own values every moment.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Expose them to your religion or faith</div>
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It seems especially important today to let them know that they’re not alone. Providing your kids with a community of faith will strengthen their values and provide parents some “leverage”</div>
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Pay attention to who else might be teaching values to your kids</div>
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Get to know your child’s teachers, coaches, relatives, etc. Anyone who spends time with your kids may be influencing them. Know their values and beliefs as well.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Ask your kids questions that will stimulate dialogue about values</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Telling them what values they should have won’t always be effective, especially when your kids get older. Asking them “curious” questions will allow discussions that will eventually lead to values. “What did you think about that fight,” may be more effective than, “He shouldn’t have started that fight!”</div>
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<br /></div>
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Talk to them about values in a relaxed and easy way</div>
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Nothing will turn your kids off more than preaching values to them after they’ve screwed up! Talk to them when everyone’s relaxed, and do it in a light, conversational manner. They’ll be much more likely to be listening rather than tuning you out.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Read them fairy tales when they’re younger</div>
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Fairy tales capture the imagination of kids and can easily lead to a discussion of values. Kids will learn the most concerning values when they’re excited about the topic.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Involve your kids in art, activities, or helping others while limiting TV and video games</div>
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Kids learn values when they experience them. Allow them to experience helping others and involve them in activities that will expand their creativity.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Have frequent conversations about values in your household</div>
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This lets your kids know that it’s important and it’s not just something you talk about when they do something wrong.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Have high expectations for your kids’ value systems</div>
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Kids will tend to rise to the level of expectation you have for them. Their value system will often reflect yours if the expectations are high. by Mark Brandenburg</div>
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Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-68743269651393531952011-08-25T19:08:00.000+07:002011-08-25T19:08:06.559+07:00Assignment Help Provides Tips For Study Habits<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:AllowPNG/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>AR-SA</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/> <w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/> <w:OverrideTableStyleHps/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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The same aspects are prevalent today wherein parents and elders in a family are ensuring that their wards or the children present in the family are adopting or taking up the right habits. The ideology behind habits that it once establishes it is hard to remove and then leaves a permanent mark in the lives of the individuals. However other theories too suggest that there is recovery too in that field, in case the habit adopted is not in concurrence to the societal norms and principles. Most of the criminals and such people owe their credit to their habits which either they were unable to get over or for the same where they did not receive a correction. But considering the fact that habits leave a very permanent mark. <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">In the like manner we at Assignment Help Australia would like to discuss about and suggest about students and learners to take up the proper study habits. Almost 80 to 90 percentages of the students and learners today would refrain from studying. But as elders and we count ourselves in, to suggest and ensure that the students and learners adopt this studying habit, which will actually benefit them for their own future. The kind of competition that is prevalent in the world today, it is important for the students and learners to establish themselves in their respective study fields, so that their performance will be highly elevated so that they are able to stand among the best. Yes at this stage it may sound distant, but please learn to see the dream, that one day they will. As elders we at homework help would provide necessary tips for the students and learners to adopt to improvise their studying habits and that in case they have not adopted the same, they may inculcate this habit.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Through the support and help the student and learners would receive from homework help, we assure you that the tips shall ensure that the study habits will develop. We are making use of very advanced learning techniques, which are being incorporated after consultation of various child psychologists and support from various educational establishments. The kind of tips that will be worked upon each individual child would differ from usage of the same to its extent or concentration. Therefore we assure you that for tips in study habits you do not need to knock any other door, we are open to welcome you in and please be assured that homework help shall take care of the rest. Please call us and be free from the unnecessary burden that you are carrying.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">I am covering education news all over the world for the past 15 years. I like to write more about new forms of education. Find more about Assignment Help at www.assignmenthelps.com.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div>Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-40622270377697440322011-08-25T19:06:00.006+07:002011-08-25T19:06:59.138+07:00THE BENEFIT OF READING STORIES THAT YOU CAN DOWNLOAD ONLINE<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:AllowPNG/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>AR-SA</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/> <w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/> <w:OverrideTableStyleHps/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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Any short stories downloading site is sure to give you easy navigation buttons in order to find the exact literature that you want. You will normally see categories like the ones below: 1. Fiction 2. Romance 3. Sci-Fi 4. Fantasy 5. Humors 6. Horror 7. Interactive 8. Children These are the normal categories which will make your searching easier. Sometimes, you may also search using the name of the author if you know it by heart. Once your e-book download short story is downloaded to your hard drive, you can choose to read it from your e-book reader (you must have an e-book reader to access most of the stories). You do not have to worry about the text fonts because you can adjust it to the way you like it. And if you are really having a hard time reading it using your computer, you can always print it and have a hard copy of your own. You should also consider the ratings given to the literature before downloading your short story. In most cases, you can see the following ratings like: U - which means that the story is suitable for children of any age, PG - Which literally means Parental Guidance, which means you need to be with your children when reading it because there might be some scenes not suitable for very young minds. We also have rating 15 - which does not mean you have to be 15 years old to read it but this means there are scenes that contains violence, sex and language that is not suitable for all audiences. Then the last one would be rated 18 - which is strictly for adults only. Downloading short stories is very beneficial because aside from not having to read chapter per chapter books, you get the total idea and feel the emotion of the writer in just a few pages. Children will surely see the moral lesson of the story and bring it with them as they grow older. And since they do not normally contain pictures and other graphics, children will hone their imagination skills and lead them to be creative and develop other skills that they may need as they grow up. Adults would also benefit from this because with just a few pages, they are able to relax themselves and somehow pick some lessons from what they read and see the beauty of life. Just make sure to download short stories from reputable sites in order to protect your computer from any type of virus and spywares that may damage your drive. Once you have seen a good site for this, teach your children how to use the navigation buttons and make him or her enjoy the habit instead of making your children use the internet for doing nonsense or worst- doing something that they shouldn't be. Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-69513701409895763802011-08-25T19:06:00.001+07:002011-08-25T19:06:04.362+07:00FINDING BAGS<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:AllowPNG/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>AR-SA</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/> <w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/> <w:OverrideTableStyleHps/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal">Finding the right bag for a teenage girl can be daunting, time-consuming and frustrating all at the same time. School bags for teenage girls need to be strong, durable and fit for purpose. The bag needs to be large enough as well as strong enough to carry their daily essentials, such as text books, a bus pass, keys, an umbrella, a mobile phone, exercise books, a purse, a make-up bag, pencil cases, sports kit and maybe even a packed lunch.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">At the same time, the bag shouldn't be too large and bulky that it is too heavy to carry. And as most teenage girls are fashion conscious, the bag should also contain an element of style. So not only do they need a bag that is practical, but also one that is stylish and suits their personality. They definitely don't want to be seen carrying an ugly school bag.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Gola bags have an amazing selection of messenger bags and sports bags that are always a favourite amongst teenage girls. Gola has been around for a very long time so you know it's a brand you can rely on and trust.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Their products are of excellent quality and unlike other messenger bags that just look good on the outside, but are thin and flimsy, Gola bags look great on the outside - with hundreds of different colours and designs - and can hold a reasonably large amount of books. They are made to be tough and durable, and are popular with many parents looking for the right bag for their teenage girls.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">The most popular and the most purchased range is the Gola Redford range.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">These cool bags combine retro inspired design with eye-catching colours and panelling. The coloured front panelling contrasts with different colours on the sides of the bags. Teenage girls are spoilt for choice when it comes to choosing one of these bags and because the prices are low, it's feasible for them to have more than one Gola bag to suit their moods.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Not only are these bags great for school, but teenage girls can also use them for going shopping, going to their local leisure centre or travelling. These retro shoulder bags are made of a tough durable PVC Outer shell that won't get stained and protects your contents from the rain.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">The bag has a Gola branded zip with an inside pocket to keep your valuables secure. The adjustable shoulder strap contrasts with the colours of the bag, also has a black Gola branded inner lining. When teenage girls are not in school, they can team up their favourite Gola bag with a favourite outfit or their best pair of jeans and a cool trendy top.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">For a great selection of school bags for teenage girls , visit http://golabagsforgirls.com</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">take it from <a href="http://www.articleslash.net/Kids-and-Teens/632657__School-Bags-for-Teenage-Girls.html">http://www.articleslash.net/Kids-and-Teens/632657__School-Bags-for-Teenage-Girls.html</a></div>Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-78848157235897652602011-08-25T19:05:00.002+07:002011-08-25T19:05:18.716+07:00Education is compulsory for you<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:AllowPNG/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>AR-SA</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/> <w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/> <w:OverrideTableStyleHps/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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</div><div class="MsoNormal">Directly or indirectly the prospect of a family or a country depends on the future of a child. So, initially it appears to be an obligation for a family and the country to provide a child, almost every chance to grow or to prosper physically as well as mentally. This is because the future of a country and a family is subjected to the present of a child. We have seen that the countries, which fall in the category of under-developed, are facing the major problem of illiteracy.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Countries like Africa, South Africa, and Afghanistan etc have not progressed yet because they have the lowest ratio of education. Whist, countries like America, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia etc are in the race of developed countries. The major reason behind their development and progress is their standardized educational system. If we only take an example of the UK, she has the high literacy rate of 99%.</div><div class="MsoNormal">The above mentioned statistics show the significance of education in the life of a country. It not just contributes to a country’s development and growth but also revolutionizes a young’s mind to civility.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Undeniable strength of a foundation </div><div class="MsoNormal">Not even a single thing can stand or maintain its position without the support of a solid foundation. Every young mind requires stable nourishment for its growth in the shape of education. In this process, formal education plays a fundamental part, which a child acquires from schools like primary schools, prep schools, private schools or secondary schools.</div><div class="MsoNormal">School is the initial home of education, where one gets familiar with the basic principles of a right and a wrong. Country like UK has made education a compulsion for all children.</div><div class="MsoNormal">We observe that in many countries acquiring education formally has not become a necessary part as it should have become up till now. Parents should admit and realize the deep-seated strength of education for his/her child because education is as important as a healthy diet for a proper physical and mental health. It is such a strength and vigour which, itself empowers the keeper.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Many ancient thinkers, philosophers, and writers like Aristotle, Plato, and Einstein, etc have written books in the significance of education. Aristotle’s writing encompasses morality and aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics. This wide range of study reflects that acquiring education or knowledge is being honoured by the ancients, who have excelled almost in every field of the study.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Why to choose a good educational institution for your child?</div><div class="MsoNormal">The major reason why a school is regarded as a significant part of a child’s growth is that it gives high precedence to enhancing young child's social development. This is so because social behaviourism and interaction of a human child begins in the early years.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Put briefly, it is appropriate to introduce your child with the regular and formal rules or terms of living in a society in educational institutes like school. take it from http://www.articledeck.com/Education-Is-Compulsory-For-Your-Child%E2%80%99s-Life.html</div>Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-2985940814206463342011-08-25T12:50:00.002+07:002011-08-25T12:50:57.370+07:00Kemampuan Anak<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:RelyOnVML/> <o:AllowPNG/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>AR-SA</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/> <w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/> <w:OverrideTableStyleHps/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;"><span lang="EN-CA" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA;">Kemampuan anak untuk memahami apa yang dikatakan orang jauh lebih cepat dan jauh lebih baik daripada produksinya. Sebagian peneliti mengatakan bahwa kemampuan anak dalam komprehensi adalah lima kali lipat di bandingkan dengan produksinya (Benedict 1979 dalam fletcher dan Garman 1981: 6).Fenson dkk (dalam Barret 1995: 363) mengatakan bahwa pada saat anak dapat memproduksi 10 kata, komprehensinya adalah 110 kata; jadi, 11 kali lipat daripada produksinya.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;"><span lang="EN-CA" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pada umumnya kebanyakan ahli kini berpandangan bahwa anak dimanapun juga memperoleh bahasa ibunya dengan memakai strategi yang sama. Kesamaan ini tidak hanya dilandasi oleh biologi dan neurology manusia yang sama tetapi juga oleh pandangan mentalistik yang mengatakan bahwa anak telah di bekali dengan bekal kodrati pada saat di lahirkan. Di samping itu,dalam bahasa juga terdapat konsep universal sehingga anak secara mental telah mengetahui korat-kodrat universal ini.Karena dalam bahasa ada tiga komponen, yakni, fonologi, sintaksis, dan sematik, yakni, bagaimana anak memperoleh kelayakan dalam berujar.</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;"><span lang="EN-CA" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-CA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kalau kita kaji ulang perkembangan bahasa anak setelah mereka dapat mengucapkan “kata” pertamanya, kita lihat anak pada mulanya berbahasa hanya dengan menggunakan satu kata saja. kata-kata yang diucapkan itu bentuknya sederhana, maknanya konkret, dan mengacu pada benda, kejadian, atau orang yang ada di sekitarnya dan dalam membaca awal permulaan, hendaknya disesuaikan dengan celotehan (babbling) anak, dimana kata awal yang mereka kenal adalah kata-kata yang dimulai dengan kosonan dan diikuti sebuah vokal.</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Ketidakseimbangan antara komprehensi dengan produksi ini tampak pada perilaku bahasa sehari-hari si anak. Dia telah akan bias memahami perintah untuk menaruh bungkus makanan ke tempat sampah, misalnya meskipun dia belum dapat mengucapkan satu kata pun dengan baik. Dia akan menangis kalau dimarahi ibu atau ayahnya: dia akan datang kalau dipanggil; dst.</span></div>Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-66019012777533565702011-08-25T04:50:00.000+07:002011-09-07T20:38:10.077+07:00PRODUKSI KALIMAT<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Ujaran diproses melalui 3 tahap, yaitu konseptualisasi, formulasi dan artikulasi (Meyer 2000: 49; Roelos 2000:71-73). </div>
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Studi tentang produksi kalimat tidak dapat dilakukan secara langsung. Kita tidak mungkin membedah tengkorak untuk mengetahui dimana dan bagaimana aliran elektrik pada neuron kita kita itu terjadi. Studi kalimat ini akan dilakukan dengan mengobservasi kalimat yang diujarkan, bagaimana kalimat itu diujarkan, dimana pembicara senyap, dimana dia ragu, dan mengapa dia senyap dan ragu, serta kesalahan-kesalahan apa yang dibuat oleh pembicara tersebut. </div>
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A.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Senyapan dan kilir lidah </div>
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1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Senyapan </div>
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a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Macam senyapan </div>
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Pada umumnya orang senyap sebentar, entah bernafas entah untuk keperluan lain. Pada waktu bicara, senyap untuk mengambil nafas sebenarnya tidak banyak hanya sekitar 5 %. Senyapan yang lebih umum adalah senyapan karena ragu-ragu (hesitation). </div>
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Ada beberapa alasan mengapa orang senyap:</div>
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-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Karena dia telah terlanjur mulai dengan ujarannya, tetapi dia belum siap untuk seluruh kalimatnya. Karena itu dia senyap untuk mencari kata-kata untuk melanjutkan ujarannya.</div>
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-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Karena ia lupa kata-kata yang dia perlukan.</div>
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-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Karena ia sangat berhati-hati dalam memilih kata karena memperhatikan dampak pada pendengarnya. </div>
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Senyapan ini sendiri terbagi dua, yaitu </div>
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-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Senyapan diam dimana pembicara berhenti sejenak dan diam ketika dia mengingat atau mencari kata yang tepat, kemudian melanjutkannya setelah menemukan kata yang tepat. </div>
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-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Senyapan yang diisi dengan bunyi-bunyi tertentu seperti <i>eh, uh</i> yang digunakan hanya sekedar merupakan pengisi</div>
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Sebagai contoh dalam bahasa indonesia dapat kita jumpai pada penyiar tlevisi yang membuat kekeliruan dan memperbaikinya dengan memakai frasa <i>maaf</i>, atau <i>maksud kami</i>. </div>
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b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Letak Senyapan </div>
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Para ahli belum ada kesepakatan yang pasti dimana tempat persisnya letak senyapan, namun ada yang berpendapat :</div>
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-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Senyapan terdapat pada terutama sesudah kata pertama dalam suatu klausa atau kalimat (Boomer 1965:148-158)</div>
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-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Senyapan terdapat sebelum bentuk leksikal yang penting (Goldman-Eisler 1964) </div>
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Namun demikian ada beberapa tempat-tempat yang para ahli sependapat (Clark & Clark 1977:267).</div>
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1)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Jeda grammatikal, adalah tempat senyap untuk merencanakan kerangka konstituen pertama dari kalimat yang akan diujarkan. Senyapan seperti ini cenderung lama dan sering. </div>
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2)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Pada batas antara satu konstituen dengan konstituen yang lain, disinilah orang merencakan konstituen apa yang cocok. Misalnya verb phrase, adverbial phrase, apa yang cocok yang akan digunakan selanjutnya </div>
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3)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Sebelum kata utama dalam konstituen. Pada bahasa seperti bahasa inggris, frasa nomina yang dimulai dengan kata <i>the</i> dapat memunculkan senyapan kaerna pembicara bisa saja sudah terlanjur mengeluarkan kata itu tetapi dia kemudian harus mencari nomina atau kata lain yang cocok.</div>
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c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Kekeliruan </div>
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Kekeliruan ada dua yaitu kilir lidah dan afasia</div>
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1)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Kilir lidah </div>
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Adalah suatu fenomena dimana si pembicara mengalami kilir lidah sehingga apa yang dia katakan berbeda dengan apa yang dia maksud. Kilir lidah dapat dibagi menjadi </div>
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a)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Kilir lidah disebabkan seleksi yang keliru </div>
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-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Seleksi semantik yang keliru </div>
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-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Malapropisme</div>
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-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Campuran kata (blends)</div>
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b)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Kekeliruan asembling </div>
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<b><i>Kekeliruan seleksi </i></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span dir="LTR"></span>Kekeliruan pada seleksi semantik </div>
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Kekeliruan pada seleksi semantik umumnya berwujud kata yang utuh dan berasal dari medan semantik yang sama </div>
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Contohnya: “<i>Kamu nanti beli kol, maksud saya, sawi, ya”</i></div>
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Medan semantik kol dan sawi adalah sama yaitu kelompok sayuran. </div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span dir="LTR"></span>Kilir lidah malaproprisme</div>
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Yaitu kekeliruan yang disebabkan karena ingin kelihatan berkelas tinggi dengan memakai kata-kata yang muluk, tetapi kata-kata tersebut bukan lah kata yang benar. Contohnya : <i>sebuah bengkel menuliskan di papan namanya </i><b>“Tempat Repa<u>v</u>arasi Sepeda”</b> mungkin dnegan pengertian huruf V pada kata revarasi adalah lebih keren dari pada huruf p. demikian pula seorang pelawak yang menyebutkan kata antisisapi padahal yang dimaksudnya antisipasi karena untuk di anggap lebih intelek.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span dir="LTR"></span>Campuran kata.</div>
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Muncul bila orang tergesa-gesa sehingga dia mengambil satu atau sebagian suku dari kata pertama dan satu atau sebagian suku lagi dari kata kedua, kemudian digabungkan menjadi satu kata. Seperti :</div>
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Not in the <i>sleast </i>(dari slightest dan least)</div>
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Please <i>Expland</i> (dari explain dan expand)</div>
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Dalam bahasa inggris kekeliruan ini sering dimanfaatkan untuk menciptakan kata yang lebih pendek seperti kata brunch dari kata breakfast dan lunch, motel dari kata motor dan hotel. </div>
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<b><i>Kekeliruan Asembling </i></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span dir="LTR"></span>Transposisi </div>
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Yaitu memindahkan kata atau bunyi dari satu posisi ke posisi yang lain. Contohnya :</div>
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I need a <b><i>gas</i></b> of <b><i>tank</i></b> <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span>seharusnya I need a <b><i>tank</i></b> of <b><i>gas</i></b> </div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span dir="LTR"></span>Kekliruan antisipasi </div>
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Pembicara megantisipasi akan munculnya suatu bunyi, lalu bunyi itu digunakan sebagai ganti dari bunyi yang seharusnya. Contoh :</div>
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<i>“Bake my bike”</i></div>
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Kata bake seharunya adalah take namun karena si pembicara mengantisipasi akan adanya kata huruf b pada bike, maka kata take berubah menjadi kata bake. Dalam bahasa indonesia contohnya adalah </div>
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Seruling bambu <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> seluling bambu </div>
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Bisa saja <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> sisa saja </div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span dir="LTR"></span>Kekeliruan perseverasi </div>
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Disebut juga repitisi yaitu kebalikan dari antisipasi. Kalau pada antisipasi kekeliruan terjadi di muka, pada perseverasi kekeliruan terjadi di belakang. Contoh : </div>
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<b><i><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;">P</span></i></b>ulled a <b><i><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;">t</span></i></b>antrum <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> <b><i><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;">p</span></i></b>ulled a <b><i><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;">p</span></i></b>antrum </div>
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Bunyi /p/ pada kata pulled terbawa ke belakang sehingga yang harusnya tantrum menjadi pantrum.</div>
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2)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Afasia </div>
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Afasia adalah penyakit wicara dimana orang tidak dapat berbicara dengan baik karena adanya penyakit pada otaknya. Penyakit ini umumnya karena stroke yaitu sebagian otaknya kekurangan oksigen sehingga bagian tadi menjadi cacat. Afasia sangat berhubungan dengan erat dengan otak dan perlu ulasan yang lebih rinci, sehingga kami tidak akan membahasnya di makalah ini. </div>
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<br /></div>
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d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Unit – unit pada kilir lidah </div>
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1)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Keleliruan pada fitur distingtif </div>
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Contohnya :</div>
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Clear blue sky <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> glear plue sky</div>
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Clear ke glear merupakan penggantian fitur distingtif (-vois) dengan (+vois). Pada kasus blue menjadi plue adalah sebaliknya dari (+vois) dengan (-vois)</div>
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2)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Kekeliruan segmen fonetik </div>
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Yaitu kekeliruan dimana dua fonem tertukar tempat. Contohnya </div>
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With this ring I thee wed <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> with this wing I thee red</div>
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Left hemisphere <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> helf lemisphere</div>
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Kekeliruan fonetik merupakan kekeliruan yang paling umum yaitu mencapai 60 – 90% (Meyer 2000:52)</div>
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<br /></div>
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3)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Kekeliruan sukukata </div>
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Dalam hal ini yang selalu tertukar adalah konsonan pertama dari suatu suku dengan konsonan pertama dari suku lain. Contoh :</div>
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a-ni-mal <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> a-mi-nal </div>
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dalam bahasa indonesia </div>
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ke-la-pa <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> ke-pa-la</div>
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se-mi-nar <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> se-ni-mar</div>
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<br /></div>
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4)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Kekeliruan kata </div>
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Kekeliruan dengan tertukarnya tempat kata. Contoh :</div>
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Tank of gas <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> gas of tank</div>
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<br /></div>
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B.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Lupa-Lupa Ingat dan Latah </div>
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Dalam bahasa inggris disebut <i>tip of tongue</i>. Sekitar 75% dari orang yang lupa-lupa ingat menerkanya tidak terlalu keliru (Nickel dan Howard 2000; 125). </div>
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Suatu penelitian yang meneliti kata sextant, ada yang menjawab dengan kata secant, sextet, dan sexton.</div>
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Dari penelitian disimpulkan adanya pola-pola tertentu dalam menerka kata yang akan di ingat:</div>
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a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Jumlah suku kata selalu benar </div>
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b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Bunyi awal kata itu juga benar</div>
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c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Hasil akhir kekeliruan itu mirip dengan kata yang sebenarnya. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Latah adalah suatu tindak kebahasaan dimana seseorang, sewaktu terkejut atau dikejutkan mengeluarkan kata-kata secara spontan dan tidak sadar dengan apa yang dikatakannya. Latah mempunyai ciri-ciri berikut : </div>
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a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Konon latah hanya terdapat di Asia Tenggara </div>
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b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Pelakunya lebih banyak terdapat pada wanita</div>
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c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Kata-kata yang diucapkan umumnya berkaitan dengan seks atau alat kelamin pria atau wanita.</div>
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d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Kalau kejutannya berupa kata, maka si latah juga bisa hanya mengulang kata itu saja. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Seberapa jauh kebenaran ciri-ciri di atas belum rasanya belum pernah diteliti. </div>
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<br /></div>
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C.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Proses Pengujaran </div>
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Proses pengujaran dapat diamat dengan model WEAVER ++</div>
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<tr> <td><br /></td> <td><img height="896" src="file:///C:/Users/karni/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.png" width="612" /></td> </tr>
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Katakanlah ada seorang Belanda yg melihat rokok dan mau mengatakan kata untuk benda itu. Akses leksikal akan mulai dari pembentukan konsep untuk benda ini yang disimbulkan dengan CIGAR(X) sampai ke wujud fonetiknya. Berikut adalah langkah-langkahnya:</div>
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a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Peretrif lema (lemma retreiver) menerima konsep CIGAR (X) dan sekaligus memunculkan pula kategori sintaktik “nomina”, gender tak-netral, dan bentuk tunggal. </div>
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b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Kemudian “berkas” itu dikirm ke word form encoding. Pada tahap morphological encoding, apa-apa yang berhubungan dengan morfologi, seperti bentuk tunggal dan kategori gendernya, diproses sehingga muncullah morfem</div>
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c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Pada tahap phonologicla encoding, morfem ini diwujudkan bunyi-bunyinya, suku katanya bagaimana, dan tekanan katanya bagaimana.</div>
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d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Hasil dari phonological encoding ini dikirim ke bagian phonetic encoding untuk diproses fitur-fitur fonetiknya. </div>
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e.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Akhirnya dikirim ke tahap terakhir, yakni program artikulasinya. </div>
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D.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Artikulasi kalimat </div>
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Setelah kata untuk calon kalimat itu selesai diproses dan akan diujarkan, maka bagian otak yang bertanggungjawab mengenai pengujaran, yakni daerah Broca, memerintakan Korteks motor untuk mulai bekerja. (Korteks motor adalah sebuah jalur di otak ynag mengendalikan lidah, rahang, gigi, pita suara dan mekanisme wicara lainnya). Agar iringan getar suara sebagai (+vois) atau (-vois) dengan segmen fonetiknya tepat, maka instruksi ke pita suara diberikan paling awal, sekitar 0,30 mili detik sebelum instruksi ke segmen bunyi itu dikeluarkan. </div>
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Seandainya kata yang akan di ucapkan adalah kata <i>rokok</i> maka korteks motor akan memberikan instruksi yang seolah-olah berbunyi:</div>
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a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Pita suara, bersiap-siaplah untuk bergetar</div>
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b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Lidah, tempelkan ujungmu pada daerah alveolar dan getarkan berkali-kali</div>
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c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Pita suara, bersamaan dengan bergetarnya lidah itu, bergetarlah kamu</div>
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d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Uvula, menempellah pada tenggorokan agar udara tidak keluar lewat hidung.</div>
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Dengan instruksi tersebut terbentuklah bunyi /r/. untuk bunyi /o/, prosesnya juga sama, hanya saja bunyi instruksi nya yang berbeda. </div>
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Dalam kenyataannya kualitas bunyi itu terpengaruh dengan bunyi dimuka atau dibelakangnya. Posisi lidah waktu mengucapkan o pada kata <i>opor</i>, akan berbeda dengan posisi lidah ketika mengatakan o pada kata rokok. Pada kata opor, posis lidah mulai dari titik nol, sedangkan pada kata rokok posisi lidah ada pada posisi r. </div>
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Kecepatan ujaran tentu saja mempengaruhi proses ini karena makin cepat seseorang berbicara, makin sedikitlah waktu yang dimilikinya untuk memperoses semua instruksi ini. Sebagai akibatnya, bunyi-bunyi itu makin tidak akurat, dan bahkan mungkin terjadi kekeliruan. </div>
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<br /></div>
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E.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Bagaimana kekeliruan terjadi </div>
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Fromkin (1973) menggambarkan dengan contoh sebagai berikut :</div>
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Yang seharusnya yang terjadi </div>
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a <i>weekend</i> for MANIACS <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> a <i>maniac</i> for WEEKENDS</div>
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<br /></div>
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kata yang dicetak dengan kapital mempunyai tekanan primer, sedangkan yang dicetak miring mempunyai tekanan sekunder. </div>
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Berikut adalah langkah-langkahnya</div>
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a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Pembicara ingin membuat konstituen yang merujuk pada waktu (w-32)</div>
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b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Kemudian membuat pola sintaktik </div>
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{artikel tdk definit + nom + [tek 2] + prep + nom + [jamak] + [tek 1]}</div>
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c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Pembicara kemudian mengakses bentuk leksikal yaitu <i>weekend, </i> dan <i>maniac</i> untuk dimasukkan ke dalam pola tersebut. Tetapi dia keliru memasukkan kata tersebut sesuai dengan pola yang dibuatnya. Yang seharunya di isi dengan weekend dimasukkan kata maniac. Sehingga terjadilah kilir lidah.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l8 level1 lfo12; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Pembicara mewujudkan kata-kata dalam bentuk bunyi dengan afiks dan tekannya. </div>
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a + maniac + for + WEEKEND + [z]</div>
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e.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span dir="LTR"></span>Masing-masing kata dispesifikasikan sesuai dengan fitur distingtif masing-masing. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Proses kekeliruan ini mengikuti urutan tertentu. Langkah c misalnya mengikuti langkah b, buktinya ketika</div>
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maniac dan weekend tertukar, tekanannya tidak ikut, begitu juga (s) jamak juga tidak ikut, serta masing-masing kata sesuai dengan fitur distingtifnya masing-masing, seperti bunyi [z] pada kata weekends.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Dikutip dari buku Psikolinguistik </div>
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Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-39143099206386886012011-08-24T21:05:00.000+07:002011-08-24T21:05:32.629+07:00Home Schooling Advantages VS Disadvantages<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:AllowPNG/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>AR-SA</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/> <w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/> <w:OverrideTableStyleHps/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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</style> <![endif]-->Home Schooling is an option that is becoming more attractive to parents as time goes on. Schools have become increasingly unstable over the past couple of decades. Children roam the hallways unchecked, textbooks are outdated, violence is prevalent, children are bullied mercilessly, and <span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD4">the quality</span> of education on the whole has greatly diminished.<br />
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What options do parents have to combat this downward spiral? Initially, private school was thought to be the answer. As enrollment in private schools soared many parents failed to see a difference between public and private schools. The problems were still the same.<br />
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The option of home schooling has been around for a long time; however, until recently it had not been so popular. The idea of home schooling seems like a cure-all to many parents due to the advantages this type of education provides over traditional schools. Children who are home schooled can avoid many of the problems schools have become known for. For one, the environment is less threatening. Children can learn without fearing other students, aggressive or nasty teachers, and be under the constant supervision of parents. In addition, home schooling allows parents to dictate the academic course of their children. Home schooling also allows students to proceed at their own speed. If a child is weak at multiplication and division, a parent can focus lessons on those skills in favor of another skill that the child might grasp rather easily.<br />
<div style="background-color: transparent; border: medium none; color: black; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Home schooling is also advantageous because it keeps children away from other students that may be corruptive forces. There are many students in school who do not value learning. This is not any fault of the schools; however, it is still a painful reality. These students can lead to the destruction of a stable learning environment. Home schooling keeps children focused <span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD1">on learning</span> and not on avoiding social pressures.<br />
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It may sound like the perfect option, but there are many disadvantages of home schooling. First of all, home schooled children are usually less socialized. While schools can sometimes be the breeding ground for poor social behaviors, school is also a place where students learn to interact with others and build social skills. It seems a bit like a catch 22.<br />
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In addition, another drawback to home schooling could be implementation of an educational plan. Many parents are not qualified as teachers and may not understand what is necessary to ensure a child has access to the proper curriculum.<br />
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Finally, another disadvantage to home schooling is the necessity for parents to take full responsibility for their child's education. If you choose to <span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD3">home school</span> your child there is no one for you to blame if your child does poorly. The responsibility falls completely on the parent.<br />
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There are many advantages and disadvantages to home schooling. Before you begin a home schooling plan make sure you have evaluated your ability to properly instruct your child and provide a quality learning experience. If you do not think you can handle it, you might as well send your child to school but become more involved with his or her education.<br />
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Read more: <a href="http://kriskoonar.articlesbase.com/homeschooling-articles/home-schooling-advantages-vs-disadvantages-59115.html#ixzz1VxHcGMHW" style="color: #003399;">http://kriskoonar.articlesbase.com/homeschooling-articles/home-schooling-advantages-vs-disadvantages-59115.html#ixzz1VxHcGMHW</a> <br />
Under Creative Commons License: <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/3.0" style="color: #003399;">Attribution No Derivatives</a></div></div>Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-55644531441383199422011-08-24T01:18:00.008+07:002011-09-19T23:35:22.902+07:00JADWAL KULIAH PPS UNY<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><span class="fullpost"><a href="http://www.ziddu.com/download/16154271/JADWALSEMESTERGANJIL2011.2012..doc.html">JADWAL KULIAH SEMESTER GANJIL</a></span><br />
<span class="fullpost"><a href="http://filecopter.com/files/3EBw1314565525.html">JADWAL KULIAH SEMESTER GANJIL 2011/2012</a> </span><br />
<span class="fullpost"><a href="http://hotfile.com/dl/128290549/5f85412/JADWAL_SEMESTER_GANJIL_DIBUAT_TGL_240811.pdf.html">JADWAL KULIAH</a></span><br />
<span class="fullpost"><a href="http://filecopter.com/files/85AFkH1316010269.html">JADWAL KULIAH VERSI 13 SEPTEMBER 2011</a></span><br />
<span class="fullpost"><a href="http://www.ziddu.com/download/16441151/UPLOAD170911.xls.html" style="color: red;">JADWAL KULIAH VERSI 17 SEPTEMBER 2011</a> <br />
</span></div>Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-23115698349420293022011-08-24T00:12:00.000+07:002011-08-24T00:12:17.365+07:00PRESCHOOL IN BANGALOREThe main objectives of Play school are: * To develop a good physique, adequate muscular co-ordination and basic motor skill in the child. * To develop good health habits and to build up basic skills necessary for personal adjustments such as dressing themselves, toilet and eating habits. * To develop emotional maturity by guiding the child to express, understand, accept and control his feelings and emotions. * To develop good desirable social attitudes, manners and to encourage healthy group participation. * To encourage aesthetic appreciation (art, music, beauty, etc.) * To stimulate the child’s beginning of intellectual curiosities concerning his immediate environment. * To encourage the child’s independence and creativity by providing him with sufficient opportunities. “The school is an opportunity for progress of the student. Each one is having the freedom to develop freely. Preschool is generally considered appropriate for children between zero or three and five years of age, between the baby or toddler and school stages. During this stage of development, children learn and assimilate information rapidly, and express interest and fascination in each new discovery. It is well established that the most important years of learning are begun at birth. A child's brain at this age is making connections that will last the rest of their life.[citation needed] During these early years, a human being is capable of absorbing more information at a time than they will ever be able to again. The environment of the young child influences the development of cognitive skills and emotional skills due to the rapid brain growth that occurs in the early years. Studies have shown that high quality preschools have a short and long term effect in improving the outcomes of a child, especially a disadvantaged child. However, some more recent studies dispute the accuracy of the earlier results which cited benefits to preschool education, and actually point at preschool being detrimental to a child's cognitive and social development. A study by UC Berkeley and Stanford University on 14,000 Kindergarteners revealed that while there is a temporary cognitive boost in pre-reading and math, preschool holds detrimental effects on social development and cooperation. For more information on <a class="blank" href="http://kkblr.com/" target="_blank"> Preschool in Bangalore </a> you can visit http://www.kkblr.com/activities.html <br />
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</span>Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-77158865917180573272011-08-24T00:03:00.001+07:002011-08-24T00:03:45.089+07:00Online Assignment Help Is A Vast Learning<table border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
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<tr><td class="base_text"><span style="font-size: large;"><strong></strong></span>This word voluminous defines the sense of information and knowledge that is available. In the world today there is so much matter that is of such vast nature right from history, literature, arts, sciences, computers, technology etc. the line is very large and information within each of these segments in itself is very vast in nature. Further within each of these streams there is further specializations, these specifications in it again are very vast in their contents. With the invention of newer aspects and technologies the study of each individual specialization has spread rapidly. Those how were able to adapt to the growing change and accepted its newer concepts are successful today. However this does not say that those who did not adopt have not excelled in their areas, but this is a more generalized statement. There is much more that can be imputed into the vast learning concept.<br />
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However when we look at the academic front, which again is the base area which gives birth to further learning and specialization. The academic area today has been given much impetus by the government all across the world. The basic ideology behind persuasion of education developments is an economical concept supported by a sociological aspect too. However learning in itself is very vast. Considering such huge nature of the learning concept we ay homework help has laid down stress upon developing the students and learners of today, so that they are able to face tomorrow in a better way. <br />
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We at Assignment Help Australia have a treasure of information and knowledge which we have selectively maintained and up grading at regular intervals. This knowledge and information is very objective and comprehensive in nature. The students and learners of varied levels of academic studies can approach and get the best of their learning through the support and help we render. We have well trained and qualified faculty for catering to the needs of our students and learner. Today we have international connections and institutions all across the world have united together to share their own inputs of various aspects of learning. Therefore the learning is no longer limited but vast in its sense. Therefore we at homework help have ensured that our students and learners get the best of vast learning, which is at a above average superior level. Therefore for vast teach we beck and call you to attend and join, now before you feel you are left out. <br />
I am covering education news all over the world for the past 15 years. I like to write more about new forms of education. Find more about <b><a href="http://www.assignmenthelps.com/">Assignment Help</a></b> at <a href="http://www.assignmenthelps.com/" target="_blank" title="http://www.assignmenthelps.com">www.assignmenthelps.com</a>. <br />
Read More From <span style="color: #993300;"><a href="http://www.articlefeeder.com/profiles/Ricky-Ponting.html?userid=57215">Ricky Ponting</a></span><br />
<div align="right"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://www.articlefeeder.com/post_comment.php?id=347117&cat=29"><img border="0" height="32" src="http://www.articlefeeder.com/images/Newsletter%202%20Commentary.jpg" width="32" /></a></span></div>By: <a href="http://www.articlefeeder.com/profiles/Ricky-Ponting.html?userid=57215">Ricky Ponting</a> <br />
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</tbody></table>Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-65142946283958952102011-08-24T00:02:00.001+07:002011-08-24T00:02:36.678+07:00Assignment Help Provides Tips For Study HabitsThe same aspects are prevalent today wherein parents and elders in a family are ensuring that their wards or the children present in the family are adopting or taking up the right habits. The ideology behind habits that it once establishes it is hard to remove and then leaves a permanent mark in the lives of the individuals. However other theories too suggest that there is recovery too in that field, in case the habit adopted is not in concurrence to the societal norms and principles. Most of the criminals and such people owe their credit to their habits which either they were unable to get over or for the same where they did not receive a correction. But considering the fact that habits leave a very permanent mark. <br />
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In the like manner we at Assignment Help Australia would like to discuss about and suggest about students and learners to take up the proper study habits. Almost 80 to 90 percentages of the students and learners today would refrain from studying. But as elders and we count ourselves in, to suggest and ensure that the students and learners adopt this studying habit, which will actually benefit them for their own future. The kind of competition that is prevalent in the world today, it is important for the students and learners to establish themselves in their respective study fields, so that their performance will be highly elevated so that they are able to stand among the best. Yes at this stage it may sound distant, but please learn to see the dream, that one day they will. As elders we at homework help would provide necessary tips for the students and learners to adopt to improvise their studying habits and that in case they have not adopted the same, they may inculcate this habit. <br />
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Through the support and help the student and learners would receive from homework help, we assure you that the tips shall ensure that the study habits will develop. We are making use of very advanced learning techniques, which are being incorporated after consultation of various child psychologists and support from various educational establishments. The kind of tips that will be worked upon each individual child would differ from usage of the same to its extent or concentration. Therefore we assure you that for tips in study habits you do not need to knock any other door, we are open to welcome you in and please be assured that homework help shall take care of the rest. Please call us and be free from the unnecessary burden that you are carrying. <br />
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I am covering education news all over the world for the past 15 years. I like to write more about new forms of education. Find more about <b><a href="http://www.assignmenthelps.com/">Assignment Help</a></b> at <a href="http://www.assignmenthelps.com/" target="_blank" title="http://www.assignmenthelps.com">www.assignmenthelps.com</a>. <br />
Read More From <span style="color: #993300;"><a href="http://www.articlefeeder.com/profiles/Ricky-Ponting.html?userid=57215">Ricky Ponting</a></span><br />
<div align="right"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://www.articlefeeder.com/post_comment.php?id=347121&cat=29"><img border="0" height="32" src="http://www.articlefeeder.com/images/Newsletter%202%20Commentary.jpg" width="32" /></a></span></div>Qarnyhjrhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11759365086101408657noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7062596630062783076.post-53859040335817314582011-08-23T22:11:00.000+07:002011-08-23T22:11:23.073+07:00SEVEN KINDS OF FOODS MAKE US FEEL HAPPIEROur mood can affect everything in our daily life.When we're in a bad mood or depressed,we don't feel like ourselves and we have a hard time concentarting or just making it through the day.When we're happy,we feel on top of the world and ready to take on anything.The food we eat can have a great impact on our mood,and if you want to look and feel good then you need to be sure to include some of the foods that will naturally lift your spirits.Here we look at several foods that are sure to raise our spirits and make us feel happier overall.<a class="blank" href="http://www.chaussurestores.com/" target="_blank"> air max pas cher </a> 1. Milk:those foods that are rich in calcium will naturally help to boost our spirits. Those that suffer from depression are told to take a calcium and Vitamin D supplement, and the good news is that 1-2 glasses of milk a day can be a natural mood booster that can help a person to feel happier and more productive. 2. Spinach:dark leafy greens are good for your health and a home remedy for so many ailments. So it’s really no wonder that spinach, rich in iron, is a definite if you are looking for food to make you feel happier. You can get the nutrients that you need out of this dark leafy green and lift your spirits all at the same time. 3.Salmon:here we see the recurrence of Omega-3 fatty acids and just how much good they can do for our overall health. This time, we see that regular consumption of salmon, about 2-3 times a week, can help to make us feel happier and of course maintain good health.<a class="blank" href="http://www.69sneakers.com/" target="_blank"> air max 90 pas cher </a> 4. Whole Grain Pasta or Bread:we look to foods rich in carbohydrates as a sort of “comfort food”, but in this case they are good for us, too. If you switch out the refined and white pasta and breads with whole grain versions, you will not only be happier but you will also be doing yourself a great favor for your overall health. 5. Sunflower Seeds:it is recommended that one should add seeds to their diet as a source of protein and fiber, but here we see just what it can do for mood. Sunflower seeds are rich in selenium, and this is one nutrient that is believed to make us instantly feel better and much happier, almost upon consumption. 6. Tofu:many people turn to tofu as it’s such a healthy meat substitute that offers high levels of protein with a lower fat and cholesterol content. This is a great idea, but it can also be looked to as a great mood lifter for the content that it brings and should be a definite in any “get happy” diet. 7. Fortified Cereals:ensuring that you get enough folic acid into your diet is a good idea for your overall picture of health. It can also contribute greatly to being a happier person, and so we see that fortified cereals are a must to achieve this. Are you become happy after read this article?Our latest shoes name is "happy".Wearing our shoes maybe you can be more happy because our product made of the best comfortable material,which will relax your feet no matter how long you walk. <a class="blank" href="http://www.highheelgirlz.com/" target="_blank"> christian louboutin pas cher </a> <br />
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